Clear Words — Mahamati

by Mahamati

The Letter to a Friend (Suhṛllekha) is one of the most beloved Buddhist texts ever written — Nāgārjuna's personal letter to King Udayin, condensing the entire Buddhist path into 123 verses. For over a thousand years, monks and laypeople across Asia have memorised it, chanted it, and lived by it.

Clear Words (Sphuṭārthā) is Ācārya Mahamati's detailed commentary on this letter. It is the only surviving Indian commentary that explains Nāgārjuna's verses word by word, line by line — unpacking the philosophical precision behind the poet's warmth, tracing each teaching back to the sūtras, and revealing the systematic architecture hidden within what appears to be a simple letter between friends.

This text has never been translated into English. The Tibetan translation was made by the Indian paṇḍita Sarvajñadeva and the great Tibetan translator-monk dPal-brtsegs (Pal-tsek). The Sanskrit original is lost; only the Tibetan survives. This is a Good Works Translation from the Degé Tengyur (Toh. 4190), folios 73b–112a.

Introduction

Homage to the noble Manjushri in the form of a youth.

Because Acharya Nagarjuna sent this virtuous letter to his friend, King Udayin, it is called the "Letter to a Friend."

Regarding the term "quality-nature" — it means "evoked," because these qualities are certainly produced from previous roots of virtue. "Nature" here means "cause." For this very reason, the term "worthy of virtue" is explained thus: whoever practised virtue in the past, in the present time becomes one possessed of virtuous fortune. By this, it is shown that this person is worthy of hearing the holy Dharma.

Therefore: "It is fitting that you hear these noble verses."

Who composed them, and for what purpose?

I have composed a small number of these noble verses,
arising from the pronouncements of the Tathagata,
for the sake of aspiring to merit.

"Pronouncements of the Tathagata" is a synonym for "teachings." For the sake of aspiring to whatever merit arises from those teachings, "I have compiled and arranged these noble verses, and it is fitting that you hear them" — this is the meaning. "Noble verses" is the name for the stanzas. And "how many are there?" — "a small number" is stated. By this, the fear of excessive words is dispelled.

Alternatively, "quality-nature" is a synonym for "the essence of qualities." By this, it is shown that this is the defining mark of virtue. "Worthy of virtue" means being fit for virtue — whoever possesses a virtuous intention is fit for virtue. Therefore, "it is fitting to hear the holy Dharma" is demonstrated, because virtue is its prerequisite. The remainder is as before.

The Sugata-Image Simile

If one were to think, "I will not listen to this poem of yours, which is not excellent," the master therefore says:

Just as an image of the Sugata made even from wood —

The word "even" includes stone, clay, and the like. "Of whatever kind" means whether excellent or not excellent.

Just as an image of the Tathagata made from wood, of whatever kind, is to be worshipped by those skilled in the four distinctions — so too, even though my poem is poor and not excellent, because it relies on the words of the holy Dharma, it is worthy of praise. And because it is worthy of praise, the thought is that it is also worthy of being heard.

The Moonlight Simile

"But I already know the words of the Tathagata — what use, then, is this poem?" To this he says:

Though the pleasant words of the Great Sage
have surely been taken to heart by you —

The word "again" includes hearing, extensive explanation, and meditation. This means: though the pleasant words of the Blessed Buddha, the Great Sage, have indeed entered your mind, still this poem should not be disparaged. Why?

Does not moonlight make a whitewash palace
even more white?

Just as a palace made of whitewash, white by its own nature, when suffused by moonbeams becomes even whiter — so too, when what has already been spoken is rehearsed again, it becomes even clearer. Therefore this poem should not be disparaged.

The Six Recollections

Because he is free from afflictions and the imprints of birth, the Great Sage is a Tathagata. Because he has spoken well, his words are pleasant.

From this point onward, "The Victor has well proclaimed that the Buddha, the Dharma..." and so forth is the teaching of the Dharma. Because he conquers unwholesome dharmas, "Victor" refers to the blessed buddhas, as it is said:

Because I am victorious over unwholesome dharmas,
therefore I am called "Victor."

The six recollections that are well proclaimed — what are they? They are as follows: recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dharma, recollection of the Sangha, recollection of generosity, recollection of ethics, and recollection of the devas.

Recollection of the Buddha

Regarding the recollection directed toward the Buddha — this itself is recollection. Likewise, this applies to all the others. And how should one practise these recollections? He says: "By the respective qualities" and so forth — one should recollect and bear in mind the Buddha and the others through their respective collections of qualities. Here, the buddhas and the others are themselves the objects of recollection, because they are the bases of recollection. Therefore, it is well done to recollect the Buddha and the others through their respective collections of qualities.

What, then, are the qualities of the Buddha and the others? First, the qualities of the Buddha are as follows:

He is the Blessed One, the Tathagata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Awakened One, the One Endowed with Knowledge and Conduct, the Well-Gone One, the Knower of the World, the Unsurpassed Charioteer of Persons to be Tamed, the Teacher of Gods and Humans, the Buddha, the Blessed One.

Such and similar are the qualities of the Tathagata.

Bhagavan — "Blessed One." This is the renown that is widely known in the world. Because he has conquered attachment and the like, he is the "Blessed One." Because he conquered Mara, who strove to obstruct him as he sat at the seat of awakening, he is also the "Blessed One." In another way, because he possesses fortune in this, he is the "Blessed One" — because he possesses lordship and the like.

Tathagata — "Thus-Gone." Because he has realised things just as they abide, comprehending them, he is a "Tathagata." Because what he has spoken is just so and does not change, he is also a "Tathagata."

Arhat — "Worthy One." Because he has conquered the enemy of afflictions. Because he has broken the spokes of the wheel of samsara, for this reason too he is a "Worthy One." Because he is worthy of receiving offerings and honour, for this reason too he is a "Worthy One."

Samyaksambuddha — "Perfectly Awakened One." Because he has fully and unerringly awakened to all dharmas, he is a "Perfectly Awakened One."

Vidyacaranasampanna — "Endowed with Knowledge and Conduct." He possesses knowledge and the feet of knowledge — he possesses wisdom and the feet of conduct, namely ethics and concentration. Because he possesses these, he is "endowed with knowledge and conduct."

Sugata — "Well-Gone One." Because he has gone to the beautiful destination, he is called "Well-Gone." Because he has gone without returning, he is also "Well-Gone" — like a disease that has been thoroughly healed.

Lokavid — "Knower of the World." "World" means "that which perishes." It is twofold: the world of sentient beings and the world as vessel. Because he knows these, he is "Knower of the World." He thoroughly knows the twelve links of dependent origination as they pertain to the world of sentient beings. He thoroughly knows the arising, abiding, and extent of the earth, mountains, and the like as they pertain to the vessel world. Therefore he is called "Knower of the World." In another way, because he thoroughly knows the good conventions of the world, he is called "Knower of the World."

Anuttarapurusadamyasarathi — "Unsurpassed Charioteer of Persons to be Tamed." Those who can be tamed are the tameable. They are both persons and tameable, hence "persons to be tamed." The charioteer of those is the "charioteer of persons to be tamed" — because he tames them. "Unsurpassed" — because he surpasses even the shravakas and pratyekabuddhas. Here, "taming" should be understood as attaining the noble path. One who is thus tamed does not revert to a wild nature.

Shasta devamanushyanam — "Teacher of Gods and Humans." Gods and humans are mentioned because they are the foremost, or because they are vessels for the noble path. Because he teaches unerringly, he is a "teacher."

These qualities of the Tathagata — because he teaches the Dharma in accordance with the intentions of beings — are to be understood through the term "Buddha, the Blessed One." "Buddha" means he has realised the ultimate truth. In another way, his mind has expanded — like a lotus opening. Or again, he has awakened from the sleep of unknowing — like a person awakening from sleep.

This is the condensed meaning of these terms. The extensive meaning should be understood from other treatises. The recollection of the Buddha has been explained.

Recollection of the Dharma

The qualities of the Dharma are "well-spoken" and the like. As follows: the Dharma of the Blessed One is well-spoken, clearly seen, free from disease, timeless, meaningful to behold, to be applied inwardly, and to be individually realised by the wise. Two types of Dharma are taught: the Dharma of teaching and the Dharma of realisation. In summary: "well-spoken" describes the Dharma of teaching — virtuous at the beginning, middle, and end. The remaining terms describe the Dharma of realisation. Because of concern about excessive words, this is not elaborated further.

Recollection of the Sangha

The qualities of the Sangha are "well-entered" and the like. As follows: the shravaka Sangha of the Blessed One is well-entered, rightly entered, methodically entered, and harmoniously entered — namely, the four pairs of persons and the eight types of individuals. This Sangha of the Blessed One's shravakas is worthy of offerings, worthy of hospitality, worthy of gifts, worthy of reverence with joined palms — an unsurpassed field of merit for the world.

Here, too, in summary, two types of the noble Sangha's qualities are taught — those of learners and those beyond learning. The four phrases beginning with "well-entered" describe the qualities of accomplishment. Those beginning with "worthy of offerings" show the quality of being worthy of worship.

Recollection of Generosity

The qualities of generosity: "Indeed, my personal quality — among those in whom the stain of miserliness has arisen, dwelling with a mind free from the stain of miserliness, performing circular offerings, delighting in extending the hand, delighting in relinquishing and dispensing gifts — this I have obtained well." Here, too, five qualities of generosity pertaining to one's own continuum are taught: abandoning the stain of miserliness, possessing the disposition of giving, exerting effort with the body, completely relinquishing possessions, and delighting in that.

Recollection of Ethics

The qualities of ethics: "My ethics are unbroken, flawless, unmixed, unstained, liberating, praised by the wise, and conducive to concentration." Here, too, only the qualities of ethics pertaining to one's own continuum are taught. The meaning of these terms will be explained below.

Recollection of the Devas

The qualities of the devas: "There are devas of the Four Great Kings, of the Thirty-Three, and up to Those Who Control Others' Emanations." One recollects the qualities of those devas together with one's own qualities. Here, the qualities of birth that constitute the continuum of those birth-realm devas, together with one's own qualities of ethics, concentration, and wisdom, are said to be the qualities of the devas. In essence, one compares one's own qualities to the qualities of the devas and recollects them.

The six bases of recollection are taught first because they are conducive to faith and because they are the cause of great merit. Then, in order to teach that one should perform virtue with a mind of faith directed toward these, he says "the ten paths of virtuous action" and so forth.

The Ten Paths of Virtuous Action

Because their result is desirable, they are "virtuous." Because they are the essence of activity, they are "actions." And because they are the path to happy destinies, they are "paths of action." What are these ten paths of action? They are as follows:

1. Abandoning the taking of life
2. Abandoning taking what is not given
3. Abandoning sexual misconduct
4. Abandoning false speech
5. Abandoning divisive speech
6. Abandoning harsh speech
7. Abandoning idle chatter
8. Non-covetousness
9. Non-malice
10. Right view

These ten paths of virtuous action should be cultivated.

And how should they be cultivated? He says: "With body, speech, and mind, always" and so forth. The first three — abandoning taking of life and the rest — should always be cultivated with the body. The four — abandoning false speech and the rest — should always be cultivated with speech. The three — non-covetousness and the rest — should always be cultivated with the mind. The word "always" indicates that the actions should be both performed and accumulated.

Taking of life is complete when five factors are present: the other is a living being, one perceives them as a living being, the intention to take life is present, effort is applied, and through that effort the being dies. The gravity of the transgression should be understood through the distinctions of the basis, the intention, and the act itself.

Taking what is not given is complete when: the property belongs to another, one perceives it as belonging to another, the intention to steal is present, and having taken position, one appropriates it.

Sexual misconduct is complete when: one engages in sexual relations with a woman guarded by another, or guarded by the Dharma, or even with one's own wife at an improper time, in an improper place, with an improper organ, or in an improper manner.

False speech is complete when: with the intention to deceive and with a view established in mind, one speaks words that communicate a meaning, or communicates through bodily gesture. Even speaking with certainty about a doubtful matter is false speech.

Divisive speech is complete when: wishing to please one party or with the intention to divide, having heard something from one person, one reports it to another, and vice versa — whether true or untrue. If one asks, "When the report is untrue, why is it not also false speech?" — some say it is indeed both. But this should not be accepted, because the intention here is to divide, not to deceive.

Harsh speech is complete when: with an angry mind, wishing to cause suffering to another, one speaks words that communicate a meaning.

Idle chatter includes any speech apart from the above three that is uttered with an afflicted mind.

Covetousness arises when one generates desire for the possessions of another.

Malice arises when one bears ill will toward another sentient being.

Wrong view arises when one firmly believes that there is no result of virtuous and non-virtuous actions.

By abandoning these ten non-virtuous paths of action, one cultivates the ten virtuous paths of action.

Abstaining from Alcohol

Turn away from alcohol.

Although alcohol is a cause of great transgression, it is not non-virtuous by its very act alone — it was therefore not included among the paths of action, and is prohibited separately. The varieties of alcohol should be understood by the distinction of their causes: brewed alcohol is of three kinds — sugar-cane alcohol, grain alcohol, and honey alcohol. Prepared alcohol is that pressed from flowers and the like.

Right Livelihood and the Practice of Giving

Delight also in virtuous livelihood.

Virtuous livelihood is engaging in activities that do not harm others.

Having thus established oneself in virtuous action, one should give generously according to one's means:

Possessions are unstable —

Because possessions are transient, they are "unstable." Because they do not satisfy, they are "without essence." By this, the attachment to possessions is turned back. "Having understood" means "having realised."

"To monks" and so forth shows the three types of fields for giving: the field of worthiness is the monks and brahmins; the field of compassion is the poor; the field of benefit is one's friends. "Properly" teaches that giving should be done with respect, because respectful giving alone is the cause of a desirable result.

There is no greater kinsman than generosity.

By this, the great benefit of generosity is shown.

The Practice of Ethics

Because one should guard ethics without attachment to possessions:

Your ethics are unbroken, not degraded —

"Unbroken" — because one has not transgressed even a single precept. Transgressing a single precept makes one "broken." Transgressing many precepts makes one "flawed."

"Unmixed" — mixed ethics are non-virtuous; being free of this makes one "unmixed."

"Unstained" — because one has not dedicated ethics to the purposes of existence and enjoyment.

Ethics possessing these qualities are also "liberating," because they free one from the bondage of craving. Such ethics are "praised by the wise" and are "conducive to concentration," because the mind of one who possesses ethics enters meditative equipoise.

Ethics are like the ground for those who move and do not move.

Just as the earth is the cause of the birth, abiding, and growth of beings that move and do not move — so too, ethics are the foundation of all qualities such as concentration.

The Six Perfections

Now, in order to introduce the Mahayana:

Giving, ethics —

Through having generated the aspiration to awakening and wishing to benefit all sentient beings, giving becomes the perfection of giving.

Patience — two types: patience in the face of harm done by others, and patience in accepting suffering.

Diligence — enthusiasm for seeking the Buddha-dharma for the benefit of sentient beings.

Meditation — the four meditative absorptions that accomplish the benefit of sentient beings and the samadhi of the bodhisattva.

Wisdom — the faculty that knows all dharmas just as they truly are. Because such wisdom does not exist in shravakas and the like, it is called "immeasurable."

Develop these perfections!

This means: accomplish these perfections. Why?

Cross the ocean of existence and become a Lord of Victors!

Having perfected the six perfections, you should attain buddhahood.

Honouring Parents

Because there are also householders who possess these qualities, in order to teach them other virtuous actions, the verse is stated:

A family in which father and mother are honoured —
that family is said to be "with Brahma."

Regarding "a family in which father and mother are honoured" — this shows that in such a family there is no harm caused by humans or non-humans. "With Brahma" shows that such a family is blessed by the devas. "With the teacher" shows that it is blessed through the distinction of a spiritual master.

Furthermore, in order to show the benefits in this life and the next, the statement "honour them" and so forth is given. Honouring those two means honouring father and mother. Honouring father and mother brings benefit in this visible life and leads to higher realms in the next. Therefore, a householder should strive earnestly to honour father and mother.

The Eight-fold Observance

Because it is difficult for householders to observe celibate conduct at all times, in order to encourage them toward even a single day's pure conduct, the eight-limbed observance is taught. Therefore the verse beginning "Harm, and..." is stated.

Here, "harm" is the taking of life. "Theft" is taking what has not been given. "Sexual misconduct" is engaging in improper conduct through the three doors of the body. "Lying" is speaking what is false. "Intoxicants" are fermented liquor and distilled liquor. "Eating at improper times" is consuming permissible food after midday has passed. "High beds" are seats and thrones that exceed the proper measure. "Songs and dancing" are those famous in the worldly sense. "Using perfumes and garlands" is prohibited for the sake of humility, but not for the purpose of healing the sick.

These eight are the limbs of the observance. If one asks whether these limbs are parts of some other vow — there is none, but they are called "general limbs," like the fifth limb of the latter.

If one asks whether these limbs follow the discipline of the arhats — because it is stated:

Possessing these eight limbs that follow the discipline of the arhat —

It is explained that by this first limb, "I train in following the discipline of these noble arhats." Here, the arhat's discipline consists of the limbs themselves, while the one who follows the arhat's discipline is the person. This being so, the container indicates the stable one, as in the expression "the chicks cry out," and there is no fault.

Now, the verse "The observance, in the desire realm, with beautiful divine form" and so forth shows the ripening fruit of this observance vow: through the vow of a single day's observance, one will be reborn wherever one wishes among the six classes of desire-realm devas.

"To men and women" means: it is bestowed on men and on women, not on hermaphrodites and the like, because vows do not arise in them. "To bestow" means to give.

The Thirteen Unwholesome Dharmas

Because these same householders are prone to faults such as stinginess through attachment to unwholesome actions, and because these are causes of lower rebirths, in order to turn them away, the verse beginning "Stinginess..." is stated.

Here, stinginess is clinging to one's own possessions in opposition to generosity.

Crookedness is mental instability — the inability to maintain one's intention.

Deceit is deceiving others — making them unable to discover one's thoughts, thereby confusing them.

Attachment is craving for self and craving for possessions.

Laziness is the dharma opposed to diligence — it is called sloth.

False pride is thinking "I have attained" when one has not attained what is to be attained.

Lust is craving for sexual union.

Hatred is mentally tormenting sentient beings.

These eight dharmas, together with the five types of pride of birth and the like — these thirteen unwholesome dharmas should be regarded as enemies. One should not associate with them. This is the meaning.

Here, conceit means the mind being excessively puffed up by these dharmas, so that like one intoxicated, one cannot accomplish what is dharma and what is not dharma. For this very reason, it is said: "Conceit is the mind fixated upon its own dharma through its own desire, and thereby that mind is consumed and exhausted, unable to accomplish any other dharma or non-dharma." This is the meaning.

Heedfulness

Because householders also have need for heedfulness, the master wishes to establish them in it. Therefore the verse is stated:

Heedfulness is the abode of the deathless.

Heedfulness is the foundation of nirvana — the deathless. Heedlessness is the abode of death.

How do we know this? Because the Tathagata stated:

Heedfulness is the abode of the deathless;
heedlessness is the abode of death.
The heedful do not die;
the heedless always die.

Here, heedfulness means cultivating virtuous dharmas. Its opposite is to be understood as heedlessness.

"Therefore, in order to increase your virtuous dharmas" — because heedfulness is of such great benefit, you should always be heedful in order to increase your virtuous dharmas. One should not abandon the cultivation of virtuous dharmas.

But if one thinks, "Why did you not say this from the beginning? I have already been heedless in the past — what use is heedfulness now?" — therefore the verse is stated:

Whoever was formerly heedless,
if they later rely on heedfulness —
that itself is beautiful,
like the moon freed from clouds.

"Have any such beings ever been seen?" They have. To show this, the verse "Nanda, Angulimala..." is stated.

Nanda — there was a young Shakya man of great desire. He was so intensely attached to his wife that he could not experience even a moment of joy without her. Such a one was led from home by the Tathagata and ordained. Even after ordination, he reflected day and night on her alone, not on the Dharma. Yet the Tathagata brought such a one to attain arhatship.

Angulimala — "Garland of Fingers" — was a brahmin's son. He was foolish, and having listened to his teacher's instruction that it would become dharma, he killed nine hundred and ninety-nine people. Yet he too was later ordained by the Tathagata and became free from desire in the three realms.

Ajatashatru was hateful. Through encountering evil companions and through the karmic grudges of the past, he killed his own righteous father. Yet through the virtuous friend — relying solely on the Tathagata's teaching — he escaped the fuel of hell.

The noble son Sukhavati also, through the power of improper mental engagement, killed his mother for the sake of another man's wife. Yet relying solely on the Tathagata's teaching, like one who shatters the prison walls, he escaped from the vajra of hell and experienced the happiness of the higher realms.

Thus Nanda and the others, having formerly been heedless, were later freed from their particular sufferings through the power of heedfulness. Therefore, even though you have formerly been heedless, you must later become heedful.

Patience

Because householders are prone to anger through the many unwanted things that befall them, in order to turn them from this tendency, the teaching on patience is given:

There is no austerity comparable to patience.

There is no austerity comparable to patience — patience alone is the supreme among all austerities, because the verse "Patience is the supreme austerity" was spoken by the Buddha.

This means: one who possesses patience alone is a true ascetic — not one whose mind is corrupted by anger who subsists on wind and water and roots and fruit, drying out the body, wearing matted hair and leaves and bark and rags. For the patient one burns the afflictions, while the other burns only the body. And if merely burning the body does not even attain a happy rebirth, what need is there to speak of liberation?

"Because patience is of such great benefit, you should not give anger an opening." And to show further qualities of patience:

By abandoning anger, one attains non-return.

This means: by abandoning anger, because one will not come back to the desire realm with its many sufferings, one also attains the state of non-return. For this state, the Buddha has given assurance. He is the guarantor. As the Blessed One said: "Monks, abandon anger, and I am your guarantor of non-return."

What then is patience? Not becoming angry, or if anger arises, calming it immediately without holding a grudge.

And what is anger? When unwanted things befall one from sentient beings or non-sentient things — the arising of a fierce mind. This is called "burning."

"I was insulted by this one" and so forth shows the objects of grudge-holding. There are four types of grudge-holding: "This one insulted me. This one defamed me. This one defeated me. This one stole my wealth." If one holds such grudges against harm done by others, quarrels born of anger arise. Whoever has no such holding in their mind and has thoroughly abandoned grudge-holding — because they have no mental suffering — they sleep in peace. The others, because they have mental suffering, sleep in misery.

Three Types of Beings

Now, the verse beginning "Beings are like water..." and so forth shows that among all sentient beings, both virtuous and non-virtuous minds arise. Therefore you should make your mind firm in virtue and unstable in non-virtue.

All sentient beings are of three types: like writing on water, like writing on earth, and like writing on stone. Thus sentient beings should be understood as threefold.

Like writing on water — for some this applies to non-virtue, for some to virtue. Like writing on stone — this too applies to both.

Among the afflicted: the first — like writing on water — is best, for afflictions vanish quickly. Among those who desire the Dharma: the last — like writing on stone — is best, for virtuous impressions endure.

Therefore: make your non-virtue like writing on water, and your virtue like writing on stone.

Three Types of Speech

Just as the minds of sentient beings are of three types, so too speech is of three types. To teach this, the verse is stated:

The Victor spoke of speech that enters the heart.

The Victor taught three types of speech: speech like honey, like flowers, and like filth.

And to whom do these belong? To those whose speech enters the heart, those who speak truth, and those who speak falsely.

Pleasant speech is like honey — for it enters the heart and gladdens, so it is called "heart-entering." True speech is like flowers — for it is worthy of praise. False speech is like filth — for it is worthy of blame.

Of these three types of speech, the last — like filth — you should abandon.

The Four Modes of Conduct

All sentient beings who wander in samsara have four types of conduct. Therefore, to exhort you to abide in the best conduct, the verse is stated:

From light to the end of light...

In the sutra it appears as: "Going from light to the end of light."

From light to the end of light — those born among gods and powerful humans who are again reborn there.

From darkness to the end of darkness — those born in lower realms or among powerless humans who are again reborn there.

From light to the end of darkness — those born among gods and powerful humans who are then reborn in the three lower realms or among powerless humans — like Ajatashatru.

From darkness to the end of light — those born in the three lower realms or among powerless humans who are then reborn among the gods or powerful humans — like the deva-son Frog.

These are the four types of persons. Among them, strive to be the first — go from light to light.

The Mango Simile

Now, because householders must associate with many sentient beings, in order to teach them how to deal with each appropriately, and to show the distinctions in their conduct, the verse is stated:

People are like mango fruits.

Mango fruits are of four types: some, though unripe, appear from the outside to be ripe. Some, though ripe, have not lost their green colour and appear to be unripe. Some are unripe and appear as unripe. Some are ripe and appear as ripe.

Likewise, persons should be understood as fourfold:

• The first has poor intention but excellent conduct.
• The second has poor conduct but excellent intention.
• The third has both poor.
• The fourth has both excellent.

Sexual Ethics

Now, because it is difficult for householders to abandon wrong sexual conduct through desire, and because such conduct is preceded by looking at others' wives, in order to turn them away from this, the verse is stated:

Do not look at another's wife.

In the sutra it says: "Venerable one, how should one deal with women?" "Ananda — by not looking." Here, because this is the context of householders, it says "another's wife."

But if one should happen to see them, then one should generate the perception of mother toward an elder woman, of daughter toward a younger woman, and of sister toward one of equal age. This too should not be random, but in accordance with their age.

If, even having contemplated thus, desire should arise — if one becomes attached through attachment — then one should also contemplate impurity, as will be explained: "the body with its foul smell and the nine openings that leak."

If, even having contemplated impurity, a thought of purity should arise — then at that time one should guard the mind. To teach this:

The wavering mind is like a child to be guarded.

Guarding the Mind

This means: just as in the world a child and the like, being of great importance, is guarded — so too you should guard your mind. Here too, if guarded, happiness will be attained. As the Blessed One said:

A disciplined mind brings happiness.

Sense Pleasures as Dangers

Furthermore, one should develop disenchantment with sense pleasures, just as with snakes and the like.

Here, a snake is a serpent — because its wickedness is a cause of disenchantment. Poison — because its lethal nature kills. A weapon — because it is a cause of generating suffering. An enemy — because it obstructs happiness. Fire — because it causes burning.

Sense objects too: like a snake, they are wicked because they cause harm to self and others. Like poison, they kill because they waste the merit of virtuous actions. Like a weapon, they are a cause of suffering because they lead to lower rebirths. Like an enemy, they obstruct happiness because they distance one from the glory of gods and humans. Like fire, they cause burning because they generate regret.

Therefore: develop disenchantment with sense pleasures!

Furthermore, sense pleasures produce ruin. Therefore one should also develop disenchantment with them. Or why should one develop disenchantment with the experience of sense pleasures, treating them like snakes and the like? Because sense pleasures produce ruin. Though they generate pleasure while being enjoyed, ultimately they produce nothing but ruin. Therefore the wise should abandon them like food mixed with poison.

For sense pleasures first gladden and finally scorch utterly. Therefore the Lord of Victors declared them to be like the kimpaka fruit — beautiful on the outside, rotten within.

Furthermore, because sense pleasures are causes of being bound in samsara, they should certainly be abandoned. "By their iron chains, these worldly beings are bound in the prison of samsara" — by the iron chains of the sense objects, the world of sentient beings is bound in the prison of samsara.

Guarding the Six Senses

Now, to arouse mindfulness in those who subdue the sense faculties, the verse is stated:

Whoever conquers the six sense faculties in relation to their objects —

The senses are unstable because they change when they encounter their objects. They are wavering because of the desire for objects. Whoever conquers those six sense faculties, and whoever conquers armies of enemies on the battlefield — among these two, the wise and intelligent ones regard the first — those who conquer the senses — as the truly brave.

For even animals can appear to conquer on the battlefield, yet they cannot conquer the sense faculties.

Body Contemplation

And as was stated — "one should also contemplate impurity" — to teach this, the verse is stated:

Set a young woman's body to one side.

Here, the word "body" should be connected individually to each phrase: "the body with its foul smell" and so forth. Here the body is shown to be undesirable in five ways: through its foul smell, its form, its being a support for impurity, its insatiability, and its being hollow within.

Therefore: look at a young woman's body to one side, and look at the ornaments to one side — then the fire of desire will subside. But when ornaments and body are seen combined as one, the fire of desire only blazes higher. Therefore you should not look in that way. This is the intention.

The Insatiability of Desire

Furthermore, to bring about satiation — if one wishes to enjoy the body: because there is no satiation even through hundreds of aeons in sense pleasures, one should not pursue them. To teach this, the verse is stated:

Just as a leper bitten by insects...

Just as a leper who scratches the wounds bitten by insects cannot find relief — so too childish beings who pursue sense objects to relieve the burning of desire never attain satiation but only decay.

This then is the method for subduing desire through sense pleasures.

Correct Mental Engagement

Since this alone does not fully resolve the matter, to teach that if you wish to cut it off entirely, you should cultivate this path, the verse is stated:

In order to see the ultimate, regarding phenomena —
correct mental engagement.

"The ultimate" is the non-mistaken essential nature of phenomena. "In order to see" it — in order to generate the wisdom that takes it as its object. "Regarding phenomena — correct mental engagement" means: taking the phenomena of the aggregates such as form as objects, one engages in correct mental attention — that is, mental attention concordant with the arising of ultimate wisdom.

Here, by stating "mental attention," the entire assembly of mind and mental factors is encompassed, and the principal is indicated. "Cultivate that mental attention" means: having made it manifest again and again in the non-mistaken way, contemplate it.

Having cultivated thus, what follows? The verse states:

A dharma endowed with such qualities...

By generating ultimate wisdom and progressively pacifying the afflictions, that which bestows upon sentient beings the happiness of passing beyond sorrow — this is a dharma endowed with qualities. No other dharma comparable to this exists in the world. This alone, surpassing all dharmas, is endowed with qualities.

That mental attention, in the phase concordant with definite emergence, should be understood as having the aspects of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and selflessness. This is concordant with the arising of the noble path.

Wisdom and Ethics as True Honour

Now, to express the greatness of this wisdom, the verse is stated:

Even persons of good birth, fine form, and learning...

"Of good birth" means born in a lineage such as the royal caste, like a great sal tree. "Of fine form" means endowed with colour, shape, and marks. "Of learning" means fearless regarding all treatises. Yet even such persons, if they lack the wisdom and ethics described, are not honoured, not respected, and not trusted in the world. But those who, even lacking birth and the rest, possess wisdom and ethics — they alone are worthy of honour. Therefore one should exert oneself in these alone and not be proud of birth and the like. This is the intention.

The Eight Worldly Dharmas

The verse is stated:

The Knower of the World spoke of gain and non-gain...

This shows only what is concordant with the arising of the noble path. Because one who abides in the worldly dharmas cannot give rise to the noble path, one must certainly achieve equanimity toward the worldly dharmas.

Here, the worldly dharmas are the mental pleasure and mental displeasure that arise by focusing on gain and non-gain and the like — not gain and non-gain themselves, for even noble beings experience these.

Therefore, by the power of their objects, the worldly dharmas should be understood as eightfold. Here, "bad reputation" and "blame" are to be distinguished by whether they occur behind one's back or openly.

"Make these eight worldly dharmas even" means: do not generate mental pleasure or mental displeasure.

The objects of these will not arise — because the afflictions based on these will not arise to disturb the mind, and gain and non-gain and the like will not become objects of fixation.

Furthermore, what is known as dharma in the world may also be non-dharma. To turn away from this:

Karma — Do No Evil for Others' Sake

The verse is stated:

You should not commit evil for the sake of brahmins, monks, gods...

You should not commit evil for the sake of monks, brahmins, gods, guests, mother, and the like. Why?

No one shares the ripening of hell.

Even though evil is done for their sake, it is you alone who will be joined to the suffering of hell — mother and the others will not share in the lot of hell's suffering.

Karma Ripens at Death

If one who has done evil for the sake of brahmins and the like does not wish for the ripening — why does it not ripen immediately? The verse is stated:

None of the evil actions committed...

This means: evil actions do not cut like a weapon immediately, yet when the time of death arrives, the fruit of evil actions becomes manifest.

At that time, whatever virtuous and non-virtuous actions were done become manifest — like the shadows of piled mountains at the hour of evening. Seeing this, some die with their complexion clear. Others die with their colour gone bad. Focusing on these very things, the dying consciousness is followed by the linking consciousness that connects to the next life. At that time, the ripening of karma ripens.

The Seven Noble Treasures

Having thus parted from the worldly dharmas, in order to contemplate the dharmas of the noble ones, the verse is stated:

Faith and ethics...

Faith is confident trust in karma and its fruits, in the truths, and in the Three Jewels.

Ethics is properly undertaking to abandon non-virtue. This should be understood as eightfold: the vow of a bhikshu, bhikshuni, shramanera, shramanerika, upasaka, upasika, and the observance vow.

Generosity is giving objects as appropriate, motivated by the wish to make offerings and benefit others.

Learning is listening to and retaining dharmas concordant with liberation, with a virtuous intention. "Stainless" shows that learning should be completely pure.

Conscience is, by one's own authority, shrinking back from blameworthy conduct.

Modesty is, by the authority of others, shrinking back from blameworthy conduct.

Wisdom is that which fully distinguishes the individual and general characteristics of phenomena.

The Sage declared these to be the seven treasures — because they are causes of uncontaminated happiness and because they are uncommon. Other wealth, such as gold, that is famous in the world is meaningless and deceptive — because it is not a cause for pacifying the afflictions and because it is common.

The Six Downfalls

Having thus taught the accumulation of noble treasures, in order to show the means of not wasting them, the verse "Gambling..." is stated.

Gambling is wagering games and the like, of many kinds.

Attending gatherings is going to great assemblies of common people such as festivals and the like.

Laziness is lacking enthusiasm for the virtuous actions one has done.

Evil companions are those persons upon whom one relies and thereby fails to engage in virtue and instead engages in non-virtue.

Intoxicants are fermented liquor and distilled liquor.

Wandering at night is going to other houses and other villages after the sun has set.

These six are downfalls — because relying on them causes possessions, livelihood, and virtuous dharmas to decline. The cause of downfall is called "downfall," just as medicine is called "life." In the sutra it is said: "Householder's son, these six are gates to the lower realms." There, the meaning of "cause" is clearly understood. "Reputation will decline" — this shows another danger of these.

Because this is so, one should abandon them through thoroughly renouncing their excessive practice.

Contentment

As a further antidote to external wealth and a means of being free from affliction, the verse is stated:

Among all forms of wealth, contentment is supreme.

Among all forms of external wealth such as gold, the wealth of contentment is supreme — it is distinctly excellent. This was declared by the Teacher of gods and humans — that is, by the Blessed One.

Because the Blessed One so declared, you who follow the Tathagata's words should cultivate contentment.

What virtue does contentment have?

If one knows contentment, even without possessions, one is truly wealthy.

"Even without possessions" means without wealth such as gold. Yet one who is content is truly wealthy — because the fruit of wealth IS contentment. Therefore, even if one is without wealth, if one is content, one should be understood as possessing wealth even while appearing poor.

And what is contentment? Whatever dharma involves not grieving over the past, not craving the future, and not being excessively attached to the present — that is contentment.

The Dangers of Discontent

Having thus taught the virtues of contentment, in order to show the dangers of discontent, the verse is stated:

The more heads the great naga kings possess...

For example: a naga that has seven heads has suffering corresponding to that number. One with three heads has less. One with a single head has far less. Likewise: by the distinction of possessions, the distinction of suffering should be understood.

On Wives

Because householders hold wives and this is not prohibited, in order to teach a means free from affliction by examining the faults and virtues of wives, the verse is stated:

One who is naturally connected with an enemy...

"Naturally connected with an enemy" means naturally associated with and possessing enmity. Such a wife is like an executioner — therefore she should be abandoned. Here, "naturally an enemy" is one who wishes to kill her husband.

"A wife who treats her husband with contempt" — because she treats you with contempt, she is contemptuous. Such a wife is like a mistress — she too should certainly be abandoned.

A wife who steals — even small things — she too is like a thief and should certainly be abandoned.

Then what kind of wife should one take? The verse states:

One who is agreeable like a sister...

Just as a sister is agreeable to her brother and does not disregard his words — so too a wife who is agreeable to her husband should be honoured. Just as a friend enters the friend's heart and is one to be treated with respect — so too a wife who enters her husband's heart should be honoured.

Just as a mother, wishing her son to be free from suffering of body and mind, wishes to benefit him and has a disposition of wishing to benefit — so too a wife who wishes to benefit her husband should be honoured.

Just as a maidservant, being under the power of one who cherishes her, comes under that one's control — so too a wife who comes under her husband's authority should be honoured.

These four types of wives are called "deities of the family" — because they are causes for the family not declining.

Food as Medicine

In this way, the body will also be sustained, and harm will not be generated. This very meaning is demonstrated by the words "through reasoning."

"One should rely without desire or aversion" — the meaning is that whatever food one eats, even that should be taken without connection to desire and aversion.

How? To show this, "relying on it also, not for vanity" and so forth is stated. Whoever desires vanity — thinking "I shall become vain" and "I shall become refined" — and eats food, that one eats through desire. Whoever eats for the sake of strength — since the fruit of strength is to harm others — that one eats through aversion.

Here, vanity is a cause of desire: merely some transformation of body and mind. "Refinement" is the flourishing of the major and minor limbs. "Strength" is power. Without these — merely for the body to remain, for the sake of maintaining the life faculty — this is the meaning.

Wakefulness and Diligence

Regarding wakefulness and diligence, "the nature of reasoning" and so forth is stated. Here, the nature of reasoning should be applied to diligent virtue.

"Having passed the entire day engaged in virtue" — having passed, having fully completed. As the Blessed One said: "During the day, by walking and sitting, one purifies the mind of states that would cause obscuration. Having purified..." This is like that.

"The first and last watches of the night" — the nature of reasoning does not pass only during the day. What then? By the nature of reasoning, having also passed the first and last watches of the night. As the Blessed One said:

"In the first watch of the night, by walking and sitting, one purifies the mind of states that would cause obscuration. Having purified, in the middle watch, outside the vihara, having washed one's feet, entering the vihara, lying on the right side, placing foot upon foot, mindful and aware, one rests in the lion's posture. Then in the last watch, rising quickly, by walking and sitting, one purifies the mind of states that would cause obscuration."

This is like that.

"Between those, rest" — in whatever watch lies between the first and last, "lie down" is the meaning. Even then, one should not sleep heedlessly. Rather, with the mindfulness that "I shall not tarry long before rising and performing virtue" — establishing such mindfulness is the meaning.

Why? "Even when sleeping" and so forth is stated. This means: having made the body fit for virtuous engagement, then rising to perform virtue — sleeping thus, even in sleep, because virtuous intention comes first, only virtue will arise. Even in that time, life will not pass fruitlessly.

The Four Immeasurables

Having thus made body and mind workable, in order to teach the preparation for meditation, "loving-kindness" and so forth is stated. Loving-kindness and the rest are preparations for meditation, because through familiarity with them, the first dhyana and so forth arise.

Here, that which makes loving is loving-kindness — meaning "that which makes dear." That which makes compassionate is compassion — meaning "that which prevents suffering." That which makes joyful is joy — meaning "that which makes glad." That which regards equitably is equanimity — meaning "regarding without falling to one side."

What is loving-kindness? It is the disposition that has entered into the aspect of endowing sentient beings with happiness. Compassion is the disposition that has entered into the aspect of freedom from suffering. Joy is the disposition that has entered into the aspect of not being separated from happiness. Equanimity is the disposition that has entered into the aspect of dwelling in the middle.

These four qualities — loving-kindness and so forth — should be cultivated constantly.

One who wishes to cultivate loving-kindness first purifies their ethical conduct. Then, sitting comfortably in a secluded place, one generates a virtuous mind by recollecting the qualities of the Buddha and others. One generates faith toward a person endowed with qualities, worthy of respect, like a teacher — and one engages the mental application thinking "May this noble person be happy." One engages thus until one's mind becomes tender.

Then one directs the mind toward a dear person. One directs it until a mind equal to that directed toward the first person arises. Then one directs the mind toward a neutral person, and engages until a mind equal to the previous two arises. Then one directs the mind toward an unpleasant person, and engages similarly.

If there is a person with whom one has enmity, one generates the mind thinking "May this one be happy." One engages until a mind equal to the previous ones arises.

To this extent, one has cultivated the liberation of mind through loving-kindness with differentiated objects.

From this point onward, one should understand the mental application as pervading all directions. As the Blessed One said: "One pervades a single direction with a mind endowed with loving-kindness — measureless, without rival, resolved — and, having completed it, abides." And so forth extensively.

Compassion should be engaged by the same sequence, directed toward suffering beings who are unprotected and without refuge. Joy should be accomplished by the same sequence, directed toward dear persons. Equanimity should be engaged gradually toward all sentient beings, directed first toward neutral persons.

Thus one should constantly cultivate loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity.

The Four Dhyanas

What then is the fruit of cultivating loving-kindness and so forth in this way?

"The higher" and so forth is stated. This means: by cultivating loving-kindness and so forth in this way, one will attain nirvana. But if one does not attain nirvana, one will nevertheless attain the happiness of the Brahma world — in the form realm, free from the torment of desire-realm anger, one will experience the flawless, peaceful meditation.

In order to teach that through the completion of loving-kindness and so forth, one attains the four dhyanas, "desire and conduct" and so forth is stated. Here, by the word "abandoned": having abandoned desire, having abandoned conduct, having abandoned joy, having abandoned pleasure and pain — in sequence, these are the four dhyanas.

Having attained these four dhyanas, what fruit will be attained? In order to teach the ripened fruit: "Brahma and Clear Light" and so forth is stated.

By cultivating the first dhyana, one is born with a share equal to the gods of the Brahma realm.
By the second, with the Clear Light gods.
By the third, with the gods of Vast Virtue.
By the fourth, with the gods of the Great Fruit.

Regarding the first dhyana and so forth — having abandoned desire and so forth — this should be understood solely by following the sutras. "Having abandoned conduct" also explains freedom from thought, because wherever there is no conduct, there is certainly no thought either. "Having abandoned pleasure and pain" demonstrates the feeling that is neither pleasant nor unpleasant.

Karma and Its Weight

Now, in order to teach the distinctions of heavy and light among virtuous and non-virtuous actions in the desire realm, "permanent, strong attachment" and so forth is stated.

Here, the heaviness of karma should be explained through four factors: the distinction of engagement, the distinction of intention, the distinction of antidote, and the distinction of field.

The distinction of engagement: even a small action becomes heavy when engaged in for a long time.

The distinction of intention: an action of short duration may also become heavy when possessing strong affliction or strong faith.

The distinction of antidote: an action that has been performed, if overwhelmed by a powerful antidote, becomes light. But that same action, if without antidote, becomes powerful.

The distinction of field: The field is of two kinds — those endowed with qualities and those who benefit. Those endowed with qualities are the Three Jewels and certain individuals who have arisen from cessation and so forth. Those who benefit are fathers and mothers and others who bestow special benefit — for example, the spotted deer, the bear, and the monkey and so forth.

Thus these five types of virtuous and non-virtuous actions — because they produce certain fruits and multiply them — are great. Therefore you should completely abandon non-virtue and strive in virtuous conduct.

"A handful of salt" and so forth demonstrates: a small action may be overwhelmed by the power of many. The condensed meaning is: therefore, even if your virtue is small and non-virtue great, do not be fearless. And even if your virtue is great and non-virtue small, do not be overly frightened.

The remaining meaning is easily understood.

The Five Hindrances

Now, "agitation and remorse" and so forth teaches the factors opposed to meditation and liberation. These should be strenuously abandoned.

Agitation and remorse are one hindrance. Ill-will is the second. Sloth and torpor are the third. Desire for sense-pleasures is the fourth. Doubt is the fifth.

These are the five hindrances, because they obscure the path of meditation and liberation.

Here, agitation is mental unrest — meaning "what makes the mind unsettled." Remorse is mental distress focused on what was wrongly done — meaning "later displeasure."

Ill-will is anger. This should be understood through the nine bases of hostile thought. These nine bases of hostile thought are:

"He harmed me." "He is harming me." "He will harm me." — this is the first triad.

"He harmed my dear one, my pleasant friend, the one I wish to benefit." "He is harming." "He will harm." — this is the second triad.

"He benefited my foe, my unpleasant one, the one I wish to harm, the one I do not wish to benefit." "He is benefiting." "He will benefit." — this is the third triad.

A tenth basis of hostile thought — "inappropriate" — is also spoken of. This hostile thought should be understood as connected with prior resentment.

Sloth is the unfitness of body and mind for action. Torpor is drowsiness. Desire for sense-pleasures is whatever desire-attachment for sensory pleasures — craving and aspiration being synonyms. Doubt is doubting liberation and the path of liberation.

These five hindrances, because they steal the wealth of virtue, are called "thieves."

Why are two factors grouped as one hindrance? Because they accord in restlessness and dullness. Agitation and remorse are both restlessness. Sloth and torpor are dullness.

The Five Faculties

Having thus taught the obstructive factors, in order to teach the factors concordant with liberation, "faith and diligence and mindfulness" and so forth is stated. Just as there are five factors opposed to liberation, so there are exactly five concordant with it.

Faith and so forth — the stage immediately following which the noble path arises, and where one has reached another state — is called "the supreme dharma." One not only obtains the name "supreme dharma," but also what are called "powers," "faculties," and "summit."

Here, "powers" is at the stage of patience. "Faculties" is at the stage of warmth. "Summit" is what arises immediately following warmth.

The cultivation of the five faculties is preceded by the abandonment of pride. In order to teach the abandonment of pride, "aging, sickness, and death, separation from the beloved" and so forth is stated.

"I have not gone beyond these three things — aging, sickness, and death. Likewise, I have not gone beyond separation from the beloved and the ownership of karma." Thinking thus is the antidote, and therefore one's pride will be destroyed.

Here, "ownership of karma" means: in accordance with karma, happiness and suffering arise.

The rest is easily understood.

Right View

"If you aspire to higher states and liberation" and so forth teaches the cause for the arising of the five faculties.

"Cultivate right view" — here, right view is trust that the fruits of actions well performed and ill performed arise in future lives. Meaning: trust that the next world truly exists.

Without such right view, even whatever good conduct of generosity and so forth exists:

"All becomes entirely unpleasant in its ripening."

Meaning: it will only produce unpleasant ripening. Therefore, right view is the cause for generating all roots of virtue.

The Four Inversions

Now, "the human is truly not at ease" and so forth teaches the cause for renunciation.

"Not at ease" — meaning suffering. "Impermanent" — meaning momentary. "Without self" — meaning devoid of an inner agent. "Impure" — meaning possessing the impurity of putrefaction and decay.

The human, when well examined with genuine wisdom, is like this. Those who have not established mindfulness hold the opposite view.

What fault is there in this?

"Those without mindfulness established,
seeing with the four inversions — are ruined."

The four inversions: perceiving suffering as pleasant — the inversion of perception, inversion of mind, and inversion of view. Likewise: perceiving the impermanent as permanent, perceiving the selfless as having self, perceiving the impure as pure — inversion of perception, inversion of mind, and inversion of view.

Such inverted view is the cause of lower realms and cyclic existence. "Ruined" — therefore you should know the human as suffering and so forth.

The Argument Against Self

One might say: "Perhaps it is unpleasant, impermanent, and impure — but I cannot understand it as without self. If there is no self, who experiences the fruits of virtuous and non-virtuous actions?"

If one thinks thus — "Form is not the self," the Blessed One said. "Self" and so forth is stated.

This means: if there were a self, it would either be identical in nature with form and so forth, or something other than them.

First: to demonstrate that the self is not identical with the nature of form and so forth — "Form is not self," the Blessed One said, "and up to consciousness is also not self." For now, this is the scriptural refutation that the self is identical with the nature of form and so forth.

What reasoning applies? The self is not identical with the nature of form and so forth, because it would absurdly follow that, just like form and so forth, it would be impermanent.

But if the self is something other than form and so forth, there are three possibilities.

First: it possesses form and so forth, as Devadatta possesses oxen. The reply: "The self does not possess form" — what power does the self have over form and so forth? Just as Devadatta commands his oxen and directs their milking and so forth, there is no such disposing and taking up of form and so forth at the self's wish. Even unwillingly, one sees form and so forth perishing. How then can one say "this possesses that"?

Second: it abides in form and so forth, as Devadatta sits on a seat. The reply: for non-material dharmas, abiding above and below as Devadatta sits on a seat is not suitable. Even if one claims such abiding is manifest — the self that would abide in them confers not the slightest benefit upon form and so forth, nor do form and so forth confer the slightest benefit upon it. But could the self ride upon them and direct them, like a rider upon a horse? That too is not suitable, because even unwillingly, one sees engagement and withdrawal. There is no engagement and withdrawal of form and so forth at the self's wish.

Third: form and so forth are based upon it, as vines and creepers are based upon the earth. The reply: vines and so forth are indeed based upon the earth, because one sees form and so forth arising, abiding, and increasing in dependence upon the earth. But the arising and so forth of form and so forth do not depend on a self in this way, because even without a self, external forms and so forth are seen.

Thus, regarding each of the five aggregates, there are four aspects. The twenty peaks of the view of the transitory collection are explained. These twenty peaks of the mountain of the transitory-collection view — when shattered by the vajra of wisdom, one attains the fruit of stream-entry.

Dependent Origination

Now, in order to teach the cause of the arising of things through abandoning discordant causes and causelessness, "the aggregates are not from a sovereign creator" and so forth is stated.

"Sovereign creator" means chance. "Time" — the time-proponents have imagined a single permanent, pervading entity as the cause of the arising and destruction of all phenomena. As it is said:

Time ripens beings.
Time creates creatures.
Time destroys them.
Time wakes the sleeping.
Time is difficult to cross.

"Nature" — the Samkhyas have imagined a single permanent, pervading entity of the nature of energy, particles, and darkness as the cause of the arising of all phenomena. "Nature" means the substantial self — meaning "own nature."

"The Lord" — an entity with special qualities has been imagined:

Subtle, inconceivable, supremely refined, all-knowing, maker of all,
Possessed of intellect attained through the practice of meditation,
Whose body is sun, moon, water, fire, wind, direction, and space —
Those desiring peaceful bliss and accomplishment should constantly meditate on the Lord.

Things do not arise from these — thus the view of discordant causes is refuted.

"Not causeless" — this refutes the proponents of no cause. The remaining terms demonstrate the non-inverted cause of things.

How is it known that things do not arise from a sovereign creator? Because the effort of persons is seen to be accompanied by results. Does one not also see efforts without results? Indeed — that is because other conditions are incomplete.

If something arises from a certain number of causes, and even when all those causes are assembled the thing does not arise, then it is clearly known to have been made by a sovereign creator.

Time too is not the cause of all arising, because it is not perceived through positive and negative correlation — like a flower in the sky. Furthermore, because it is permanent, things would not arise in sequence — for there would be no distinction in the cause. The arising and destruction of things would also absurdly occur simultaneously, because there would be no distinction in the cause. But if there were distinction in it, it would not be permanent.

Since no permanent cause whatsoever is observed, time has no causal nature in any respect. Destruction too is not caused by time, because it does not exist — just like what is utterly non-existent.

Nature too is refuted by the same reasoning, as applicable. Furthermore, nature would not undergo transformation, because it is permanent — like the cosmic person. Nor would it transform for the sake of the person, being permanent — like the person for the sake of nature. Nature would not act, being permanent — like the person. And the person would not act, being permanent — like nature. Nature is not the seed-basis of all phenomena, being permanent — like the person. Nature is not of the nature of energy, particles, and darkness, being permanent — like the person.

Furthermore, if nature were to transform, it would either transform entirely or partially. If entirely, nature would be annihilated. If partially, it would absurdly become impermanent.

Things do not arise from their own nature, because they already exist — like what has already arisen.

The Lord too is not the cause. Having a body of earth and so forth, He is like earth and so forth. Mutually contradictory natures in a single entity are not suitable, and having multiple natures, it is inescapable that He has a body of earth and so forth. He is not supremely refined, because He has a body that arises — like what arises. Not all-knowing, because He is supremely refined — like a liberated self. Not maker of all, because He is subtle — like an atom. Not permanent, because He has a body of earth and so forth — like earth and so forth.

The Lord is not the cause of the arising of all phenomena, because things would not arise successively — like a potter. Form and so forth are not produced by the Lord, because being entities, they are like the Lord. The Lord is not maker of all, because He is without self — like a pot. If He had a self, then like a person in bondage, it would absurdly follow that He is not a lord at all.

The proponents of causelessness are refuted merely by the world itself, and nothing further need be said about them.

Ignorance, Karma, and Craving

Then from what do things arise?

Know that they arise from ignorance, karma, and craving.

Just as an undamaged seed, covered with manure and moistened with water, produces a sprout — so too, karma covered by ignorance and moistened by the water of craving produces the sprout of further existence.

Here, ignorance is complete confusion regarding the truths — "non-knowledge," "not seeing," and "darkness" being synonyms.

Childish beings, blinded by ignorance, perform virtuous and non-virtuous actions for the sake of happiness in this life or the next — this is "formations conditioned by ignorance."

Karma is of three types: virtuous, non-virtuous, and unshakeable. Virtuous karma performed in the form and formless realms is called "unshakeable." All three types of karma are conditioned by ignorance, and moistened by the craving of the three realms, they produce the sprout of further existence.

The Three Trainings

If that is so, then "help me be liberated from aggregates such as these!" one might say.

"Liberation depends on oneself" and so forth is stated. Because liberation depends on one's own mind, one does not accept that another's help is needed to attain it.

What then is the method?

Through learning, ethical conduct, and meditation.

Here, learning should be understood as concordant with its endowment. Ethical conduct possesses non-deterioration and so forth. Meditation should be understood as concordant with the factors of definite discrimination.

Thus, endowed with ethical conduct, learning, and meditation, strive in the four truths — thinking thus, one will attain liberation.

"The higher training in ethical conduct" and so forth teaches precisely the path of liberation.

Here, the higher training in ethical conduct is whatever is dedicated to nirvana.
The higher training in mind is the four dhyanas, which are the basis of the noble path.
The higher training in wisdom should be understood as concordant with the factors of definite discrimination.

These three trainings encompass all trainings. To demonstrate this:

The more than one hundred and fifty trainings
are gathered within these three.

Because the more than one hundred and fifty trainings are gathered within these three, one should strive to train in these three. The one hundred and fifty trainings should be understood as arising from the Pratimoksha.

Mindfulness of the Body

"The lord — body-mindfulness" and so forth teaches precisely the path of liberation. Body-investigation is contemplation of the body — meaning "body-observation." This involves discerning the aspects of the body's standing, sitting, and other postures.

That mindfulness of body-contemplation — the Sugata taught it as the path of one going:

The one path.

As the Blessed One said: "Monks, the one path for the complete purification of sentient beings, for truly passing beyond suffering and mental unhappiness, for contemplating the dharmas of reasoning, for realizing nirvana — this is it: mindfulness of body-contemplation." And so forth extensively.

Here, "the one going" means the cause for attaining easily, quickly, and certainly. Therefore, the word "one path" should be seen here as a word praising the path. "Going as one" is "the path of one going" — because the path has not two aspects, one enters it in its single nature.

"It should be diligently and strenuously guarded" — because that mindfulness is of great importance, you should strive to guard it.

When mindfulness declines, all dharmas are destroyed.

If that mindfulness declines, even other dharmas will be destroyed. As for those who would attain nirvana, need it even be said?

Mindfulness of Death

From here onward, "life has many harms" and so forth establishes mindfulness of death as the cause of renunciation, the cause for attaining liberation.

"Life, connected with many harms, more impermanent than a water bubble blown by the wind" — this teaches that life is momentary.

That between the inhalation and exhalation,
between sleep and waking,
there is leisure —
that is truly wondrous.

This means: if life, connected with many harms, is momentary, then that a person — between breathing in and breathing out, between falling asleep and waking — has any leisure at all, this is truly wondrous.

Harm is of two kinds: external — wind, sun, venomous serpents, and so forth; and internal — illness and so forth aroused by the disturbance of the winds and other humours.

"The body, ultimately reduced to ashes" and so forth leads one to abandon the notion that the body has essence. Even so, this is simply mindfulness of death.

Here, "the body ultimately reduced to ashes" and so forth — the meaning should be understood by following five phrases from the sutras. As the Blessed One said: "Monks, the body of one who has died and passed beyond — relatives burn it with fire, or cast it into water, or bury it beneath the earth. Or else wind and sun dry it out. Or else various creatures of the animal realm devour it."

Here, "body" — because its nature is to disintegrate. "Ultimately reduced to ashes" — meaning burned by fire. "Ultimately dried out" — meaning buried beneath the earth, or dried out by wind and sun. "Ultimately decomposed" — meaning cast into water. "Finally impure" — meaning devoured by various creatures of the animal realm.

"It is without essence" — why?

Know that it will disintegrate, dissolve,
and putrefy — its nature is to scatter.

Essencelessness is shown by disintegration and so forth. Here, "subject to disintegration" — because it is destroyed by fire. "Subject to desiccation" — because it is dried out by wind and sun and so forth. "Subject to dissolution" — because it is decomposed by water. "Subject to scattering" — because creatures break it into pieces. "Know" means "understand."

The Seven Suns

"The earth, the mountains, and the oceans" and so forth — by seeing that even the most enduring things are impermanent, one generates the understanding that one's own body is thoroughly without essence. The phrase should be condensed as "the earth, the mountains, and the oceans."

The earth, the mountains, and the oceans
have bodies that will be burned by the blaze of seven suns.

"The blaze of seven suns" means blazing with seven suns. Those which have bodies burned by that — it is said of them:

Even those — the earth and the rest —
whose bodies are burned by the blaze of seven suns
will not leave even ashes behind.
What need to speak of the utterly frail human being?

If those shown to be mighty will reach such a state, what need is there to speak of this body, which is frail in every respect? The meaning is: there is no state that impermanence cannot destroy.

The burning of the earth and so forth by seven suns should be understood by following the Sutra of the Rising of Seven Suns. As the Blessed One said:

"Monks, there will come a time when, after a long period has passed, rain will not fall. Then on this great earth, all collections of seeds and collections of beings will be dried up.

"Monks, there will come a time when, after a long period has passed, rain does not fall. Then a second sun will appear in this world. When it appears, all rivers on this great earth except the four great rivers will be dried up.

"When a third sun appears in the world, even the four great rivers and the great lakes such as Anavatapta will be dried up.

"When a fourth sun appears in the world, even from the great ocean, the depth of a palm tree will be dried up, the depth of a yojana will be dried up, and so a hundred yojanas will be dried up.

"When a fifth sun appears in the world, the waters to the depth of two hundred yojanas and beyond will be dried up.

"When a sixth sun appears in the world, not even the smallest drop of water will remain. This great earth and Sumeru, king of mountains, will emit smoke — like smelted iron thrown into grass, smoke will pour forth on every side.

"When a seventh sun appears in the world, this entire great trichiliocosm will blaze and blaze intensely — like butter or sesame oil when burned, not even ashes will remain."

Thus all conditioned things without exception will be burned, and even these fires themselves will perish. This is the explanation of the destruction of the earth, mountains, and oceans through destruction by fire. They are also destroyed through destruction by water and through destruction by wind.

The difference is this: in the case of destruction by water, corresponding to the second sun, hot rain falls. In the case of destruction by wind, a great dispersing wind arises.

Without Refuge

"Thus all this" and so forth — having gathered the meaning as explained, instruction is given. Impermanence and selflessness have already been explained. "Without refuge" — because there is no lord at all who saves from suffering. "Without protector" — because there is no such assembly of kin. "Without abode" — because there is no other ordinary dwelling-place.

Because this world is thus without refuge:

O supreme being, you should feel disenchantment
with samsara, which is without essence like a banana tree.

The Preciousness of Human Birth

Then, in order to show that the vessel of virtue — human birth — is difficult to obtain, "dwelling in a single ocean" and so forth is stated.

"Dwelling in a single ocean" — because it dwells in one ocean. It is a turtle dwelling in a single ocean. Condensing the phrases: "the turtle dwelling in a single ocean" and "a yoke with a hole" — their meeting is the turtle dwelling in a single ocean encountering the hole in the yoke. Obtaining human birth is even more difficult than that.

This meaning is also explained at length in the sutras. The Blessed One said: "Monks, in a world that has become a single ocean, there dwells a blind, long-lived turtle that lives for a long time. Once every hundred years it surfaces. In that great ocean there is a yoke with a hole in it. When driven by the eastern wind it goes to the west" — and so forth spoken at length. "Monks, the time when that blind turtle, surfacing, passes its neck through the hole in that yoke — that time exists. But monks, I say that obtaining human birth is even more difficult than that."

"From the animals" — from the animal realm. For them, obtaining it is difficult, because they are exceedingly stupid.

Because obtaining human birth is thus extremely difficult: "Lord of men, by practising the holy Dharma, make this human life fruitful." By this it is said: you should not be satisfied with merely hearing; rather, you should take it to heart with diligence.

The Golden Vessel

"Whoever" — "a golden vessel" and so forth: having thus obtained the difficult-to-find human birth, whoever does not practise virtue is urged to practise virtue through censure.

A golden vessel adorned with jewels is not fit for vomit to be poured into. Using it for an unworthy purpose is to be censured by the world. Having been born human, whoever commits evil deeds is even more to be censured — because human birth is even harder to obtain than a jewelled vessel.

The Four Wheels

Now, "dwelling in a supportive land" and so forth shows the king that he is a fit vessel for the noble path.

A "supportive land" is whatever place is conducive to settling the mind in equanimity — because it is free from harm and injury.

"Relying on holy persons" means properly relying on spiritual friends. These are either accomplished in scripture or accomplished in realisation — possessing qualities equal to or surpassing one's own. Or: any friend or teacher who is trustworthy, skilled in speech, patient with words, speaks of profound meaning, and does not direct one to baseless pursuits. Whoever, by training under such a person, increases their morality, learning, generosity, and wisdom — such a one is called a "holy person."

"Wholesome aspirations by oneself" means accomplishing well through one's own effort, as has been explained. "Having made merit in the past" — by this, the accumulation of merit is shown.

These are called "wheels" — because they drive the chariot of the noble path. These four great wheels are yours; therefore, strive to generate the noble path. This is the intent.

Relying on a Spiritual Friend

"Relying on a spiritual friend" and so forth shows that relying on holy persons is the principal condition for generating the noble path.

Noble Ananda said to the Blessed One: "Blessed One, it seems that spiritual friends and spiritual companions are half of the holy life." The Blessed One replied: "Ananda, do not say that spiritual companions are half of the holy life. Ananda, spiritual friends and spiritual companions bring the holy life to complete fulfilment. Why? Ananda, those who are subject to birth, by relying on a spiritual friend, are completely liberated from birth" — and so forth spoken at length.

Because the Blessed One spoke thus, one should rely on holy persons. How is it known that relying on holy persons brings the holy life to fulfilment?

By relying on the Victorious One,
very many have attained peace.

Here, "brahma" means nirvana. Conduct for that purpose is the holy life — that is, the path. Therefore, the spiritual friend is the cause of the holy life reaching complete fulfilment, which is the cause of the exhaustion of all suffering.

The Eight Inopportune States

"Holding wrong views" and so forth shows what makes one unfit for practising virtue.

"Holding wrong views" means holding that the next world does not exist. "Being an animal" means being born in the animal realm. "Being a hungry ghost" means being born in the world of hungry ghosts. "Being born in hell" means being born in the hell realms. "Without the Victorious One's teaching" — because there is no arising of a Buddha. "Being born as a barbarian in a border region" means being born there. "Even when a Buddha arises, being deaf and mute" means communicating only by gestures. "Being born in any of the long-lived god realms" — among the gods without perception and in the formless realms.

In these eight states there is no leisure for practising virtue; therefore they are called "inopportune." For this same reason, being full of faults, they are also called "disadvantages."

Having been free from the disadvantages of inopportune states
and found leisure,
strive to prevent future births in them.

This means: for the purpose of preventing future birth in those inopportune states.

The Seven Faults of Samsara

"Bereft through craving" and so forth — whatever is stated here intends to cultivate the perception of revulsion toward the whole of samsara and to incline the mind one-pointedly toward nirvana. The word "suffering" is to be connected individually with each: "the suffering of being bereft through craving," "the suffering of death," and so forth. Being bereft through craving and so forth are causes of suffering, and therefore are called "suffering" — not because they are the nature of feeling itself. By "and so forth," lamentation, wailing, and similar are also included.

"Thus, from samsara — which is the basis and source of so many sufferings, whose nature is the five aggregates of clinging — one should feel disenchantment." This is the concluding statement.

"Hear also some of the reasons for disenchantment with the faults of samsara." Because all the faults of samsara cannot be fully expressed, only a partial account is undertaken. These faults of samsara are stated in seven kinds: the fault of uncertainty; the fault of insatiability; the fault of repeatedly discarding the body; the fault of repeated conception; the fault of repeated alternation between high and low; the fault of friendlessness; and the fault of experiencing the sufferings of the six realms.

Regarding the fault of uncertainty: "A father becomes his son" and so forth is stated. "Reversed" means: the son becomes the father, the wife becomes the mother, and acquaintances become enemies. Therefore, in samsara there is no certainty whatsoever.

Regarding the fault of insatiability: "Each one, four oceans" and so forth is stated. The meaning of the verse is self-evident.

Regarding the fault of repeatedly discarding the body: "Each one's own body" and so forth is stated. Here, "one's own heap of bones" means the heap of bones from one's bodies.

Regarding the fault of repeated conception: "The limit of mothers" and so forth is stated. As the Blessed One said: "Monks, suppose a certain person were to take from this great earth lumps of clay the size of juniper berries and, placing each one, say: 'This is my mother. This is my mother's mother,' and so casting them away — monks, the clay of this great earth would be exhausted first, but the succession of mothers of all beings would not. This I say."

Regarding the fault of alternation between high and low: "Indra" and so forth is stated. The meaning of the verse is self-evident.

From the Heavens to the Hells

Regarding "heavenly maidens" and so forth: "heavenly maidens" are the daughters of the gods. Having touched their breasts and waists — having experienced pleasure from that touch — this is what "having experienced" means. "Must endure the utterly unbearable" — one must endure touch that is utterly unbearable.

What is that unbearable touch?

The touch of the machines of crushing, cutting, and overpowering

and so forth is stated. The word "machine" is to be connected with each. The crushing machine — like those in the Samghata hell. The cutting machine — like those in the Kalsutra hell. The overpowering machine — understood as those in the Hot and Extremely Hot hells.

"The soft, pleasant touch of feet" — the touch of feet that makes one shiver. Having endured that pleasure: "the soft, pleasant touch of feet" means making one comfortable, serving as a foundation of comfort.

After dwelling for a long time — a thousand divine years — upon the summit of mountains like Sumeru:

One must think: "I will experience
the unbearable suffering of running through mire and putrefaction."

"Mire" means knee-deep — where, when one places one's foot, skin, flesh, and blood disintegrate, and when lifted, skin, flesh, and blood regenerate. "Putrefying mire" is the external swamp where there are creatures called "sharp-beaked worms," whose entire bodies are white with black heads. They pierce the skin of the beings there — and so forth, as extensively stated in the sutras.

"Intoxicated by heavenly maidens" and so forth: those intoxicated by the daughters of the higher realms — "intoxicated" meaning infatuated. Having been intoxicated by heavenly maidens and played in the groves of Joy and Brilliant Beauty — having sported there — then again:

In forests with leaves like sword-blades,
one's hands, feet, ears, and nose will be cut off.

"Forests with leaves like swords" — having passed beyond the mire, the putrefying mire, and the road studded with razor thorns, at a crossing there appears something resembling a green forest. Beings seeking shelter, seeking refuge, run toward it. When those beings enter, karma-born winds arise — and so forth spoken extensively.

"Having entered the gently flowing" — having entered the divine pool with its gentle current. Where there are beautiful-faced divine maidens and golden lotuses — this is what is described. Then again:

One must enter the river Vaitarani of the hells.

With caustic, hot, boiling water. The river Vaitarani — having passed beyond the forest of sword-leaves, it encircles the hells like a moat. Beings seeking shelter, seeking refuge, there — and so forth, as extensively stated in the sutras.

These four are described as "additional": the mire, the putrefying mire, the forest of sword-leaves, and the river Vaitarani. These four additional torments are arrayed in order at the gates of all the hells. Therefore, for each of the eight great hells, there are sixteen additional torments.

The Pleasures of the Gods and the Fall

"Those pleasures of the god realm" — here, the desire-realm gods from the Thirty-Three heavens upward, including the Yama gods and so forth, are intended. Having obtained whatever pleasures exist there: "exceedingly great" refers to the special quality of sensual pleasure. Or alternatively, it refers to the special quality of the pleasure of freedom from attachment — because it surpasses all other pleasures.

Above that, in the form realm:

The bliss of Brahma, free from attachment.

Freedom from attachment should be understood as the suppression of desire-realm craving.

Having obtained such bliss, at another time, because of unwholesome karma previously accumulated — propelled by karma that will be experienced in another rebirth — again:

One must endure unceasing suffering.

Where must one endure it? In the Avici hell. Having become fuel for fire — meaning one's body is burned.

"Having become the sun and moon themselves" — having obtained the state of the sun itself and the moon itself. "Having illuminated all the worlds with the light of one's own body" — this is stated in the manner of worldly expression. This light is not that of the body of the sun or moon itself, but of their celestial palaces. Without distinguishing between the support and the supported, it is explained thus.

"Then again, having gone into pitch darkness" — having gone into pitch darkness, which should be understood as existing in the spaces between the worlds. Having been born there, one cannot even see one's own outstretched hand.

The Lamp of Merit

Regarding the fault of friendlessness: "Thus one must undergo" and so forth is stated. Because in the manner described one must die:

Take up the threefold merit
as a lamp's illumination.

Because threefold merit itself is the illumination of a lamp: merit is the threefold lamp's illumination. The three kinds of merit are: of body, of speech, and of mind. Or alternatively: that arising from giving, that arising from ethical conduct, and that arising from meditation.

Why should one take up the lamp of merit? "One must enter alone into boundless darkness" and so forth is stated. In the future, because one is veiled by the darkness of ignorance and things are unclear, and because it is unbroken, it is called "boundless darkness." There one must enter alone, without companions, and that is accompanied by the terrors of manifold sufferings. Therefore, the antidote is to take up the lamp of threefold merit.

The Sufferings of the Six Realms

From this point onward, the text should be understood as treating the fault of experiencing the particular sufferings of the six realms.

Regarding the hell realms first:

Upon beings who commit misdeeds,
the Reviving, Black-Thread...

and so forth is stated. In this verse, because the compound words need to be experienced as a series, the hells are taught in sequential order. The order should be understood as: Reviving, Black-Thread, Crushing, Wailing, Great Wailing, Hot, Extremely Hot, and Avici — these are the eight great hells. By "and so forth," the additional hells, the cold hells, and the neighbouring hells are also included.

"Will always be suffering" — will experience suffering without interruption. For whom will these hells be unceasing suffering? "Upon beings who commit misdeeds" — upon those who commit misdeeds of body, speech, and mind. Conduct censured and condemned by the noble ones is "misdeed." This includes the ten unwholesome actions of the body, as previously explained.

The Eight Great Hells — Individual Descriptions

First, in the Reviving Hell: beings gather together and strike one another's limbs and minor limbs with various weapons born from karma, cutting and battering until, having lost consciousness, they fall to the ground. After that, a voice from the sky resounds: "May you revive!" — and that hell is called "Reviving."

In the Black-Thread Hell: the attendants there — beings who inflict harm — place the beings between various mountain-shaped forms. They draw black lines upon them and saw them like wood and split them like timber. That hell is called "Black-Thread."

In Crushing: beings are gathered together. The attendants who inflict harm press them between various mountain-shaped forms, and those mountains crush them. The blood of those being crushed flows down like a river. Likewise, they are placed in a great iron press and crushed, and great boulders fall from above, so that they are scorched upon the iron ground, pulverized, and destroyed. That hell is called "Crushing."

In Wailing: beings seeking shelter are driven into an iron house. Within, fire arises. The flames merge into one and blaze, and they cry out pitifully in anguished voices. That hell is called "Wailing."

In Great Wailing, the distinction is this: beings seeking shelter are driven into a double-walled house. Therefore that hell is called "Great Wailing."

In the Hot Hell: the attendants who inflict harm place beings into a mass of flames and burn them. They pierce them from behind with blazing spears, the points emerging through the skull, and fire blazes from every pore and opening of their bodies. They are laid face-up on the blazing ground and struck with blazing iron hammers. That hell is called "Hot."

In Extremely Hot, the distinction is this: they are struck from behind with a three-pronged spear, and two of its points emerge through the two shoulders while one emerges through the skull. They are wrapped in blazing iron sheets all over the body. They are cast face-down into great iron cauldrons of boiling liquid. As they move up and down and sideways within, their skin, flesh, and blood dissolve until only a skeleton of bones remains. When they emerge, their skin, flesh, and blood regenerate. That hell is called "Extremely Hot."

In Avici: from all four directions, above and below, fire blazes in a solid mass. The fire adheres to the skin, flesh, sinews, and bones down to the marrow of the beings there, and clings to their bodies as a wick clings to the core of a butter lamp, remaining without distinction. There, apart from the pitiful sounds that are heard, one cannot differentiate: "These are beings; this is fire" — it appears as a single mass of flame. Because there is no interval between fire and suffering for those beings, that hell is called "Without Respite."

Specific Torments of the Hells

Now, the text shows the specific sufferings in each of those hells, as appropriate.

Regarding "some are pressed like sesame" — in the Crushing Hell, they are placed in blazing iron presses and crushed. "Ground to fine powder" means that in the same hell, the hell-guardians exert great force upon them with blazing iron pestles, grinding them to powder.

"Like a saw" and so forth refers to the Black-Thread Hell, where Yama's servants saw them with blazing saws set to their joints, like carpenters working green wood, and split them with blazing axes.

Likewise, "others in molten bronze" and so forth refers to how, on the banks of the river Vaitarani, those consumed by hunger have their mouths pried open and are doused with molten bronze.

"Some on iron stakes" and so forth refers to the Hot Hell, where the hell-dwellers are impaled on blazing iron stakes studded with thorns.

"Some with iron-fanged dogs" and so forth refers to the Sword-Leaf Forest, where ferocious dogs with iron fangs tear at them while they raise their hands to the sky, crying out in agony.

"Others powerlessly, with sharp iron beaks" — in the iron shalmali tree forest, crows with sharp iron beaks and terrible iron talons tear them apart.

"Some with various worms and beetles" — worms are those born from the body; beetles come from outside. "Various" means differing in colour, shape, and kind. "Ten thousand flies and black bees" — "black bees" means black wasps; "ten thousand" indicates great multiplicity. "Unbearable to the touch" — those whose contact is unbearable. "Those who tear great wounds" — the first explains the cause of unbearable sensation; the second explains the cause of great wounds. "Writhing" — the body is unsteady due to the torment. This suffering too should be understood as existing in the subsidiary hells.

"Some in a blazing mass of embers" — the hell-guardians burn the beings in masses of blazing embers. Their bodies, unable to bear the sensation, lose consciousness when their mouths are pried open. This suffering exists in the Hot Hell.

"Some in great cauldrons made of iron" — in the Extremely Hot Hell, they are boiled like rice in a cooking pot within great iron cauldrons of boiling liquid.

The Incomprehensibility of Hell's Suffering

"Sinners, in the mere time of a breath" and so forth demonstrates the unbearability of hell's suffering. Since sinners, upon hearing of the immeasurable sufferings of the hells that persist without even the interruption of a single breath, do not become frightened — therefore they are of vajra nature, meaning utterly incapable of fear.

The sufferings of hell for the wicked arise immediately after death. Having heard of such profound and extreme suffering and not feeling remorse — that is their vajra nature.

"Paintings of the hells" and so forth: even those who see hells painted on walls become frightened — this should be applied to all. "Heard" means related by others. "Remembered" means previously experienced. "Read" means engaging with texts. "Fashioned in form" means modelled in clay.

If even such depictions of the hells
produce fear, what need to speak of experiencing
the unbearable ripening?

At that time, the hells produce extreme fear indeed.

The Cessation of Craving Is Supreme Bliss

"Among all happinesses, the exhaustion of craving" and so forth shows that even within the hells, suffering is not equal everywhere — there are distinctions. The happiness of the exhaustion of craving should be understood as the happiness of liberation. Among all the sufferings in the world, the suffering of Avici is unbearable.

The human suffering of being struck by three hundred spears in a single day is the most extreme suffering in the human world. Yet even that does not equal the least suffering of the hells.

Having thus explained that hell's suffering is unbearable, it teaches that only the exhaustion of karma can end it. "The seeds of these unwholesome fruits" — because the hells arise through the power of all beings' karma. "Seeds" means causes. "Strive so that even a particle of those seeds does not remain" — this is the instruction.

The Animal Realm

"In the animal realm too" — the sufferings of the animal realm are taught generally and specifically.

Generally:

Various sufferings of being killed,
bound, beaten, and so forth.

"Killed" means slaughtered. "Bound" means with ropes. "Beaten" means with iron. "And so forth" includes being worked and having their noses pierced. This explains the sufferings inflicted on animals by humans and non-humans.

Regarding their own kind:

For those who have abandoned the virtue leading to peace,
there is the extremely unbearable devouring of one another.

"Virtue leading to peace" means virtue concordant with liberation. The abandonment itself explains their being unsuitable vessels. "Devouring one another" — eating each other mutually. The abandonment of peace-leading virtue explains their extreme foolishness. Without remorse, the ripening is exclusively suffering.

Specifically: some die for pearls. Some for wool. Some for bones — as with elephants. Some for flesh — as with deer. Some for hides — as with leopards. "Others, powerlessly": struck with feet and driven — as with horses. Struck with hands — as with water buffalo. Struck with whips — as with donkeys. Struck with hooks — as with elephants. Struck with goads — as with oxen.

The Hungry Ghost Realm

"Among the hungry ghosts too, through deprivation of desires" — taught generally and specifically. Generally: suffering caused by the deprivation of desires, ageing, and so forth. Because desires are never completely fulfilled, it is unceasing. "Hunger, thirst, cold, heat, fatigue, and fear" — the suffering produced by these is extremely unbearable. Fatigue arises for those who run about seeking food. Fear arises when they see beings bearing swords, clubs, and ropes.

Specifically: "Some whose mouths are merely the eye of a needle" — those whose mouths are as small as a needle's eye. "Bellies as large as the base of a mountain." Because the mouth's opening is so fine, they cannot eat even the smallest thing easily discarded.

"Some are skin and bone" — without flesh. "Naked" — unclothed. "Like a dried palmyra tree-top."

Some hungry ghosts have mouths that blaze — when they open their mouths, fire emerges. Is this during the day? No — at night. What do they eat? They search for burning sand that falls into their blazing mouths.

Some cannot find even excrement and pus. Why? "Of low birth" — because they have not created merit. What do they eat? Having seen each other, through anger, they strike one another's faces. Some draw pus from their hands and press it upon each other. Tumours arise in their throats; through ripening, what drips inside serves the function of food.

For some, in summer the moon becomes hot; in winter the sun becomes cold. Trees with ripe fruit — even these become fruitless, as if burned by fire. By their mere glance, cool streams dry up as if burned by the poison of their evil eyes. For some, blazing fire fills them with embers. For some, a river of pus filled with worms flows down. For some, it is filled with excrement and urine.

How long do they live? Some five thousand years. Some do not die even in ten thousand years. They are a support for uninterrupted suffering. Yet their bodies do not perish — because they are bound by the firm noose of misdeed's karma.

The cause: ignoble miserliness. The Buddha taught that such miserliness is the cause of birth in the hungry ghost realm: "We who were miserly, having stared and stared and stared, and not having given even a trifle of charity — we have arrived in the hungry ghost world."

The God Realm

"In the heavens too, great bliss" — the gods experience great bliss through alluring goddesses and pleasant sense-objects. Although such bliss exists, the suffering of death-transference at the time of dying — the mental anguish — is greater than that bliss. Having reflected thus:

The noble ones
do not crave the exhaustible heavens.

The gods have no piercing physical sensation. Why does the suffering of death-transference arise? "The body's colour becomes unpleasant" — although they lack bodily suffering, upon seeing the signs heralding death, extreme mental anguish arises. As stated: "Then a certain son of the gods, weeping pitifully, cries out: 'Alas, slowly I fall! Alas, the depth!'"

The five signs of death among the gods: the body's colour becomes unpleasant; displeasure with one's own seat; the garlands wilt; the garments become stained; sweat arises from the body. These, when seen, cause mental displeasure — like the signs heralding death for humans.

"Having transmigrated from the god realms" — after death, if there is not even a little virtue for rebirth among gods or humans, one will certainly experience suffering in the three lower realms again.

The Demigod Realm

"Among the demigods too, by nature" — the demigods possess pride born from natural arrogance. This explains their affliction-suffering. "By nature" indicates physical suffering during battle. "Due to enmity toward the gods' glory" shows the cause. Though they possess intelligence capable of discerning virtue from non-virtue, the obscuration of their realm prevents them from seeing the truth. The demigod realm is projected by non-virtuous karma but completed by virtuous karma alone — classified as a separate realm from the gods.

The Human Realm

The specific suffering of the human realm has been explained separately: "Meeting the unwanted, deprivation of desires, death, illness, ageing, and so forth — the source of many sufferings." Humans have been censured in many ways earlier.

Disenchantment with Samsara

"Such being samsara" — since cyclic existence possesses such faults, birth among gods and so forth is not excellent. "Birth as a human should be known as a vessel and support for many harms."

Having generated disenchantment with all worlds, directing toward nirvana: "If fire catches your head or garments — abandoning even the effort to extinguish those — strive to eliminate further existence." Such great diligence, not regarding body or life, should be applied to eliminating further existence. "There is no greater purpose than this" — the supreme goal of a person is this alone.

The Three Trainings and Nirvana

"Through pure ethics, meditation, and wisdom" — having fulfilled the three trainings, attain nirvana.

Nirvana is of two kinds: without remainder of the aggregates and with remainder. "Peace" indicates nirvana without remainder — distinguished by the pacification of suffering. "Tamed" indicates nirvana with remainder — distinguished by the taming of the sense faculties. Both are "stainless" through the pacification of desire's stains.

"Neither ageing nor dying" praises nirvana: without decrepitude, therefore not ageing; without dying, therefore deathless; without exhaustion, therefore inexhaustible. It is distinguished from the outsiders' nirvana — without the four great elements, sun, or moon.

The Seven Factors of Awakening

"Mindfulness" and so forth: mindfulness is non-forgetfulness of the observed object. Investigation of dharmas is wisdom. Effort is enthusiastic application. Joy is mental pleasure in the object. Pliancy is the serviceability of body and mind. Concentration is one-pointedness of mind. Equanimity is the natural settling and spontaneous engagement of mind and mental factors.

These seven, being limbs of uncontaminated awakening-wisdom, are called "factors of awakening."

Wisdom and Meditation

"Without wisdom there is no meditation" — one who cannot properly generate meditation lacks wisdom. "Without meditation, wisdom also does not exist" — without meditation, the wisdom knowing dharmas as they truly are does not exist, because "through settling the mind in equipoise, one knows things as they truly are."

One who possesses both crosses samsara like a shallow ford — swiftly, and nothing more.

The Fourteen Indeterminate Questions

"The indeterminate" — the Tathagata taught fourteen indeterminate things: the world is permanent; impermanent; both; neither. The world has an end; has no end; both; neither. The Tathagata after death exists; does not exist; both; neither. The life-force is the same as the body; different from the body.

These fourteen, when asked about, should be left undeclared. They should not even be contemplated. Why? Because contemplating them does not produce mental peace.

Dependent Origination

Having explained what should not be contemplated, directing the mind toward that which produces states concordant with awakening:

"From ignorance, actions" teaches the twelve links of dependent origination. The sutra states:

From the condition of ignorance arise formations. From formations arises consciousness. From consciousness arise name-and-form. From name-and-form arise the six sense-bases. From the six sense-bases arises contact. From contact arises feeling. From feeling arises craving. From craving arises grasping. From grasping arises becoming. From becoming arises birth. From birth arise ageing and death and grief and lamentation and suffering and mental distress and agitation. Thus does this great mass of suffering alone arise.

In reverse: "By the cessation of birth, all these cease." By the cessation of birth, ageing, death, grief, lamentation, and so forth cease. By the cessation of birth, becoming ceases. By the cessation of ignorance, formations cease.

What is ignorance? Not knowing the truths is, in the ultimate sense, ignorance. For the childish person possessed of ignorance, virtuous, non-virtuous, and unshakeable actions are "formations conditioned by ignorance." The consciousness infused with the seed of that karma is "consciousness conditioned by formations."

Name-and-form: from the stage of linking in the mother's womb — the four formless aggregates together with form made from the elements. The four aggregates are "name" because they lead to further existence. Form is "form" because elements produce change. Through development, the six sense-bases arise. When they mature and objects become manifest, contact arises. From contact, feelings of pleasure, suffering, and neutral arise.

The links projected by formations, moistened by craving and grasping, at the time of death become "becoming." Then birth occurs, and ageing, and death.

The twelve links are classified into four groups: projecting, projected, accomplishing, and accomplished — three, four, three, and two in sequence. They are also classified into three lifetimes: ignorance and formations in the past; consciousness through becoming in the present; birth and ageing-death in the future. And into three paths: ignorance, craving, and grasping belong to the affliction path; formations and becoming to the karma path; the remaining links to the ripening path.

"This dependent origination, of the Victorious One" — this dependent origination is the treasure of the Tathagata's speech. Whoever knows it has realized the teaching. It is profound: not made by self, not by other, not by both, not from no cause — yet through the condition of ignorance, formations arise. Ignorance does not think "I shall produce formations." No agent is apprehended. Therefore dependent origination is profound.

The Eightfold Noble Path

"Right view, right livelihood" and so forth: right view is uncontaminated wisdom. Right livelihood is abandoning hypocrisy and wrong livelihood. Right effort is the four right abandonments. Right mindfulness is the four foundations of mindfulness. Right concentration is the four meditative absorptions. Right speech is the four virtuous verbal actions. Right action is abandoning the three non-virtuous bodily actions. Right thought is virtuous thought free from malice, renunciation-thought, and so forth.

These eight limbs are cultivated for the sake of peace — the attainment of nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths

The truth of suffering: birth characterized by the five aggregates of clinging is suffering — suffering through the suffering of conditioned existence.

The truth of origin: craving — the craving for further becoming, accompanied with delight and desire. Craving for sense-pleasures, craving for becoming, craving for destruction. "Great" indicates the multiplicity of craving's objects.

The truth of cessation: the complete cessation and pacification of that very craving — that is liberation. The exhaustion of craving is nirvana.

The truth of the path: the eightfold noble path just explained.

One should strive constantly to see these four noble truths.

Encouragement to the King

"But we are householders — how can we see the four noble truths?" Even householders such as Vemacitrin, through knowing the truths, have crossed the river of afflictions. "Not fallen from the sky, nor sprung from the earth like crops" — from the state of ordinary beings, through effort, relying on spiritual friends, they crossed the river of afflictions. Do not be frightened.

The Final Instruction

"I have much to say, but without timidity" — summary instruction. "This is the essence of the beneficial instruction." What is it? "Tame your mind" — raise the mind from non-virtue and establish it in virtue. "The Blessed One has said: the mind is the root of the dharmas." "Mind precedes all dharmas." Through a clear mind, all happiness is attained. Through a disturbed mind, all suffering is attained.

Turning Toward the Mahayana

"Whatever Dharma has been taught to you" — accomplishing even a portion is abiding in the teaching. All of this is difficult even for monks, let alone householders. Therefore, accomplish whatever you can — make your life meaningful. That very thing becomes the cause of attaining all dharmas.

Wishing to direct the king toward the Mahayana: "Rejoice in the virtue of all." Whatever virtue exists — contaminated and uncontaminated, mundane and supramundane — rejoice with unsurpassed rejoicing. By this root of virtue: may I become the protector of the protectorless, the refuge of the refugeless, the support of the supportless — may I become a Buddha.

Having dedicated one's own threefold virtue for the attainment of Buddhahood — by this mass of virtue from rejoicing and dedication: "May you live immeasurable lives." Through immeasurable births, having become the lord of yoga in all worlds of gods and humans —

Furthermore: "Like the noble Avalokiteshvara, with his conduct of power, having taken under care many wretched beings" — just as Avalokiteshvara, with a mind moistened by compassion, saved beings from lions, elephants, serpents, fire, bandits, bondage, water, and kings — so too should you.

The Final Aspiration

Having completed the accumulations, born in the final existence, having abandoned illness: "Become the protector of the worlds!" In whatever Buddha-field is purified. "Of immeasurable life-span" — as Amitabha in Sukhavati — become a Buddha like him.

Having attained Buddhahood, accomplish the boundless welfare of sentient beings, and attain the Buddhas' parinirvana.

"With wisdom, ethics, generosity, and great fame" — the perfection of wisdom, ethics, and generosity. "Stainless" — qualities without comparison. Fame spread in god realms, the sky, and the human world. Having pacified gods and humans, having established them in ethics. Having spread great fame and accomplished their welfare:

Having overcome the fear of beings tormented by afflictions
and attained primacy among Victorious Ones —

"Destruction" is caused by the view of the transitory collection. "Birth" is from ignorance, karma, and craving. "Death" — from the exhaustion of karma, the exhaustion of life-span, or failure to abandon what is harmful. Through Buddhahood, all of these are eliminated.

"Gone beyond the world" — the world exhausted in the realm of nirvana without remainder. "Merely a name" — as the sutra states: "These five are merely names: the past, the future, nirvana, unanalysed cessation, and the person." "Peaceful" — no harm from samsara. "Fearless" — nothing to fear. "Undecaying" — inexhaustible. "Without fault" — permanent.

Attain that state of nirvana without remainder of the aggregates.

The Clear Words: Extensive Commentary on the Letter to a Friend, composed by Master Mahamati, is complete.

Translated by the Indian pandita Sarvajnadeva and the chief editor-translator Bande Dpal brtsegs.

Colophon

Good Works Translation from Classical Tibetan (Dege Tengyur, Toh. 4190). Complete translation, covering folios 73b-112a (38 folios). Part 1 translated by Dawa, Tibetan Translator of the Good Work Library, April 2026. Part 2 translated by Lotsawa (Life 12), Tibetan Translator of the Good Work Library, April 2026. Part 3 translated by Dorje (Life 13), Tibetan Translator of the Good Work Library, April 2026. Part 4 translated by Lotsawa (Life 14), Tibetan Translator of the Good Work Library, April 2026. Part 5 translated by Dorje (Life 15), Tibetan Translator of the Good Work Library, April 2026.

No existing English translation of this text was consulted, because none exists. Direct reading of the Tibetan.

First English translation. No English of this commentary has ever been published, in any form — free or paywalled.

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Source Text: བཤེས་པའི་སྤྲིང་ཡིག་གི་རྒྱ་ཆེར་བཤད་པ་ཙིག་གསལ་བ།

Classical Tibetan source text from the Esukhia Digital Dege Tengyur (GitHub: Esukhia/derge-tengyur, file 173, lines 1156-1773). Presented for reference and verification.

The complete Tibetan source for the full text (Parts 1 through 5) spans approximately 617 lines of file 173 (lines 1156-1773), covering folios 73b-112a of the Dege Tengyur. The source text is freely available in the Esukhia/derge-tengyur GitHub repository under CC0.

Source Colophon

Tibetan source text from the Esukhia Digital Dege Tengyur. GitHub repository: Esukhia/derge-tengyur (file 173, lines 1156-1773). The Dege Tengyur is the standard critical edition of the Tibetan Buddhist canon. The Esukhia transcription is a Unicode digitalisation of the Dege woodblocks, released under CC0. Variant readings are marked with (X,Y) notation in the source; the first reading was followed throughout.

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