British Library Kharoṣṭhī Fragments 4 and 13 (Gandhārī)

This is the earliest surviving Buddhist commentary in any language — a Gandhāri-language verse commentary (nirdeśa) written on a birch-bark scroll dating to the 1st century CE. The text belongs to a peculiar genre of Buddhist scholasticism: selections of well-known early Buddhist canonical verses, many with parallels in the Pali Khuddaka Nikāya, accompanied by a succinct running commentary providing word-by-word explanations and doctrinal exegesis.

The commentary employs a method of "categorial reduction" — systematically analyzing each verse by reducing its terms to the standard categories of Buddhist doctrine (the factors of virtue, concentration, and understanding; the four truths; the planes of development). Sixteen sections survive in various states of preservation. The root verses parallel passages found in the Pali Munisutta, Udāna, Saṃyuttanikāya, and other early Buddhist collections, suggesting the commentator drew on a canon with affinities to the Saṃyukta tradition.

This is a Good Works Translation from Gandhāri Prakrit. Translated from the first critical edition published by Stefan Baums (LMU Munich, 2017). No prior freely available English translation existed.

Gospel Reading

1. On the Sage

Consciousness is the seed. Craving is affection — its abandoning is spoken of. He indeed is a sage: the abandoning of ignorance is spoken of. Seeing the exhaustion and end of birth: because the three sources are exhausted. Thoughts: the factors — they are made non-occurring.

2.

And especially the three remaining ones. It is to be known in detail by the sagacious.

3. On the Weapon of Understanding

Root verse: "With the weapon of understanding, virtue and observances, of best color."

Weapon is a word for arm. It is called "weapon" from striking down enemies. The acquisition of qualities is spoken of. Concentrated: thought is wrapt in the sense-object.

Taintless: abandoning of delusion. In brief: "With the weapon of understanding" — the factor of understanding. "Virtue and observances, of best color" — the factor of virtue. "Observances" — the factor of concentration. "Concentrated, pleased by meditation" — quiet. "Mindful" — insight. Through quiet and insight, the plane of development. "Liberated from attachment, without harshness" — fading of lust. "Taintless" — fading of ignorance, liberation through understanding. This is the state of one who has accomplished.

4. On Going to the Other Side

In brief: "Not another" — failure of cessation. Failure to know pain. Or otherwise: "Another" — severing of the course of pain. Occurrence of insight, non-occurrence of pain. Severing of the three courses.

5. On the Householder Citra

The householder Citra answers the venerable Kamabha in this way:

"With limbs free of drivel" — a designation of the virtues. "With a white covering" — a designation of liberation. "With one spoke" — a designation of mindfulness with regard to the body.

He does not injure, does not cause pain, does not produce oppression of anybody. That is why he is called "with limbs free of drivel."

Of craving: it is cut off because of the abandonment of what belongs to the world of three elements, and especially craving. It is the bond of the low.

In brief: "With limbs free of drivel" — the factor of virtue beyond training. "With a white covering" — the factor of concentration beyond training. "With one spoke" — the factor of understanding beyond training. "See him having come without anger" — the factor of the knowledge and seeing of liberation beyond training. "With streams severed, without bonds."

It is to be known in detail by the intelligent, sagacious.

6. On All Kinds of Existence

Root verse: "For whom all kinds of existence."

All kinds of existence: existences and more existences are spoken of, just as fruit and more fruit are called "all kinds of fruit." "Existence" — craving for existence is spoken of. "Non-existence" — craving for annihilation is spoken of, for he does not long for any. Another reading: "Existence" — the wrong view of existence is spoken of.

Gone up in smoke: thinking is smoke. That is action and defilement. Those are abandoned. Disappeared: removed without remainder. Pulling up of the roots is spoken of. Those then do not exist. "This knower" — knowing the path.

"Ender of the world" — the five factors are the world, or the five strands of desire are the world. It is called "world" from breaking down, completely breaking down. "Gone to the other side" — because embodiment has been touched.

In brief: "All kinds of existence," up to "they have disappeared, do not exist" — the state of liberation. "Gone up in smoke," up to "they have disappeared, do not exist" — abandoning of the origin. "Having perfected the religious life" — the path. "World" — the diagnosis of pain. "Ender of the world" — cessation. This is the one with fuel remaining.

7. On the Bow of Craving

Root verse: "Having the bow of craving as origin."

The two groups of fifteen are the thirty acts of violence. The state of having coarse food, having a coarse bed, having a coarse robe. The state of having the three knowledges has arisen. "See the one carrying a peacock crest" — the one having a peacock crest. The barb of craving splits the wood right in the middle. In this way the barb of craving stands still, having split the heart — in this way the barb of view stands still, having split the heart — it produces oppression of thought.

"Bow" — the five strands of desire are intended. Desires for things are made the targets. Five past, five present, five future. One's own desires and another's desires are made the measure. It arises in case of a thing. It does not arise in case of a non-thing.

8. On Conceit

Either conceit about birth or conceit about family. All pride is removed. "Banner" — the banner of the dharma. In brief: "Arisen from the one named for a tree" — praised with regard to family. "Born having a white banner" — praised with regard to birth. The two types of rebirth. A praise of the four great places of worship.

9. On Going Far

Root verse: "Going far, roaming alone."

Even sent forth to good, it goes to bad. It is both the going in all directions that is far, and the farness of the going. The sense-object is far even as much as a thousand yojanas.

Consciousness is produced. Arisen, it ceases again. Seen, heard, sensed, conscious. Not without precedent does consciousness arise. It does not take another one, a companion. Without body: having form, subtle, hard to perceive, hard to follow. "Lying in a cave" — the cave is the four steadinesses of consciousness. They will be released from great dread: because of the abandoning of all defilements.

In brief: "Going far" — the course of defilement. "Roaming alone" — the course of action. "Lying in a cave" — the course of pain. Exhaustion of action and defilement. "They will be released" — exhaustion of pain.

10. On Being Equal with Equals

Root verse: "Equal with equals."

"Equal with equals, distant from those who are different" — he becomes one who has the ten powers. "Not attaching oneself" — the state of having one's taints exhausted is spoken of. "Is worthy of the sacrificial cake" — he makes something that forms an obstacle grow into something conducive to escape. He raises in an obstacle, establishes in something conducive to escape. These are the makers of a teacher.

11. On the Wish for the Taintless

Root verse: "With a wish for the taintless."

A wish for complete extinction has arisen. Or otherwise: a wish for renunciation. "One should be pervaded by just the mind" — the fourth meditation. "With thought not fettered to desires." Going to the Aganiṣṭha gods. Or otherwise: "Streaming upwards" — a stream consisting of the dharma.

Or otherwise: there is lust for meditation only. "For the taintless" — of one of the realm of desire. One should be pervaded by the mind — obtaining of the fourth meditation. "Is called streaming upwards" — one of this form is established in seeing. The plane of development — the one who has gone there has the state of one who has accomplished.

He comes here again. Abandoning of the earlier barb of view. "With thought not fettered by desires" — by the one who has gone there, the barb of conceit is abandoned. An account of the pleasant vehicle to the breaking down of the body.

12. On Wind and Cloud

A practitioner of exertion may not dispel, not destroy his own defilements. Like wind when it has arisen scatters, disperses, destroys a cloud. "Wind" — a simile for quiet and insight. Or otherwise: a simile for the path. Or otherwise: a designation for mindfulness with regard to the body. Or otherwise: a simile for mindfulness of the impure.

For there would be no brilliant man — there would be no knower, no wise one. Knowing, understanding, is called "brilliance." With understanding he burns all defilements; with knowledge he wards them off. "For there would be no brilliant man" — failure of insight.

13. On the Brahman

Root verse: "There is no good for a brahman through this."

Brahmans are to be known: brahmans still in training and brahmans no longer in training. Here a brahman still in training is intended.

He would produce seeing with hate, then remains with flavorless seeing. Precisely because his mind turns back — whenever he makes a crude frown. In just this way he understands the truth of the origin.

In brief: an exposition of the dharma for those established in seeing. The mind turns back; therefore the truth is well concealed. From this, the plane of development is to be understood in detail.

14. On the One Root

Root verse: "With one root, with two whirlpools."

"With one root" — craving. Both internal craving and external craving. "With three defilements" — the three: passion, lust, and hatred. "Ocean" — this craving is an ocean in the sense of being difficult to cross over. The mind revolves due to dharmas — these are called the twelve spheres: "with twelve whirlpools." Hell in the sense of being difficult to descend into. Inclined: "abyss." This one, a sage who is no longer in training, has crossed over. A sage who is still in training has not yet.

Another reading: "With one root" — the embodiment view. "With two whirlpools" — both the annihilation view and the eternal view. "With three defilements" — the three. Spread out in five: the five permutations of the embodiment view — he regards form as a self, up to consciousness. The eye revolves due to forms, up to the mind revolves due to dharmas. "Abyss." This one, a sage who is no longer in training, has crossed over.

Another reading: "With one root" — it is ignorance that is spoken of. The cause of ignorance is called the root of not knowing. It is lust and it is hate and it is delusion. And as is said: "Whatever is manifold, of many kinds" — with ignorance as source, with ignorance as origin, born from ignorance. "With two whirlpools" — it revolves due to what is shameless and immodest.

15. On the Root in the Ground

Root verse: "Whose root is not in the ground."

Those are called "ground." This with the four steadinesses of consciousness. "How much less a branch" — the branch of craving. "That hero" — developed by bravery. "And the bond of ignorance." Who is worthy to find blame with him — one having such characteristics? Even the gods praise him, those of the realm of desire. He is praised even by Brahmā.

In brief: "Whose root is not in the ground" — the diagnosis of pain. "There is no leaf, how much less a branch" — the abandoning of the origin. Who is worthy to find blame — the power of those endowed with the dharma is the dharma. The inspired utterance is to be known in detail.

16. On Killing Anger

Root verse: "Killing anger, one sleeps pleasantly."

A brahman from the Bharadvāja clan — up to — she spoke the inspired utterance: "Honor to the Lord."

The brahman woman said this to the brahman from the Bharadvāja clan. A high god who could engage in debate with the ascetic Gotama — "You will be able to?" He went up to where the Lord was. He said this to him: "Which killing then, Gotama, do you approve of?"

"Destroying anger, one sleeps pleasantly. Destroying anger, one does not grieve." "One sleeps pleasantly" — bodily pleasure. "One does not grieve" — mental pleasure. Having sweet tips — the first undertaking. Taking up force, he delights, tastes joy, is pleased. This is the end of anger, the abandoning of what is sweet. The noble ones praise the killing: both awakened ones and disciples.

In brief: "Destroying anger" — exhaustion of action. "One sleeps pleasantly" — exhaustion of pain. "One does not grieve" — exhaustion of defilement.

Colophon

Good Works Translation from Gandhāri Prakrit. Translated from British Library Kharoṣṭhī Fragments 4 and 13 (CKM 5 / NirdL1), a birch-bark scroll dating to the 1st century CE from the Gandhāra region (modern northwest Pakistan/Afghanistan). First critical edition published by Stefan Baums in Two Gāndhārī Commentaries on Early Buddhist Verses: British Library Kharoṣṭhī Fragments 4 and 13: Text, Translation and Glossary (LMU Munich, 2017). This is the earliest surviving Buddhist commentary in any language, consisting of 16 sections of canonical verse selections with running exegesis employing the method of "categorial reduction." The Gospel Reading synthesizes continuous prose from Baums' translation, filling contextual gaps; lacunae markers [...] have been removed for readability. The full scholarly transliteration preserving all lacunae is available in the source publication.

Translated and formatted for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: Gandhārī Prakrit Transliteration (Selected Sections)

Gandhāri Prakrit from BL Fragments 4 and 13 (CKM 5 / NirdL1). Critical edition by Stefan Baums, LMU Munich, 2017. Square brackets indicate uncertain readings; + marks lost ak���aras; · marks word boundaries in the manuscript; ◊ marks section dividers; ❉ marks end of commentary sections. Presented here for reference and verification alongside the English translation above. Only the reconstructed text is given; for the full diplomatic transliteration, consult the source publication.

[Section 1] ... sakha di trivi ... ñano so ... viñano bio · niruvadano ... taṣ̱̄a s̄eho tasa prahano vuto · so hi muni · avijaprahano vuto ... jadikṣayatadarśi · trina nidanana kṣinatva ... te apravutikrida ... ���

[Section 3] prañayus̱o śilavrado varavarno sutro · ... anas̱avo mohaprahano ◦ sakṣeva ◦ prañayus̱o prañakadho ◦ śilavrado varavarno ◊ śilakadho vradena samaṣikadho ◊ ... samahido janarado · śamas̱o ◦ spadima vipaśano ◊ śamas̱avipaśanae ◊ bhavanabhumi ṣage pramuto akhilo ragavirago · anas̱avo ◊ avijavirago · prañavimuti ◦ eṣ̱a kridavida ◦ ... ❉

[Section 5] ... citro grahavadi ◊ aïśpasa · kamabhasa eva visajayadi · nelago di śilana as̱ivacano · śvedaprachado ... nelagena · aśego · śilakadho ◊ śvedaprachado · aśego · samaṣikadho · egaro aśego prañakadho · anigo paśa agado · aśego vimutiñanadarśanakadho · chinasodo abadhano ... vistare ñadave budhivatena viakṣanena nialena ❉

[Section 6] bhavabhava yasa ... bhava bhava ceva vuta bhavati · yas̱a phalaphala phala phala ceva vucati ... bhavena bhavataṣa vuta ◊ abhavena vibhavataṣa vuta ... vidhuvida · dhupo vitraka · eda karmakileśa te prahina astagada · anavaśeṣ̱o chorida ... logataго ◊ logo paco kadha · logo va paco kamaguna · lujanapralujanaḏo logo vucadi ... paragado · sakayasa · pha���̱idatva · sakṣeve · bhavabhavo yava astagada na sati · vimutida ... samudag̱aprahano · vuṣ̱idavo bramacarya margo · logena dukhapariño atao niros̱o eṣ̱a saüadiśeṣ̱a paragado ... ❉

[Section 14] ekamulo duavaṭo sutro vistare anugatava tatra nideśe ekamulo taṣ̄a ... ajatvataṣ̱̄a ca bahidhataṣ̱̄a ca · trimalo trayo chadaraga ... samudro sa taṣ̱̄a druutaranarthena samudro ... dvadaśa ayadana vuta · dvadaśavarto ... aśekhamuni tirno śekhamuni ... ekamulo sakayadriṭhi · duavarto uchedadriṭhi ca śaśvadadriṭhi ca ... pacavistido · pacavigara sakayadriṭhi ruo atvado samanupaśadi yava viñano ... ekamulo avijo eva hi vuto ◊ añanamulo vuto avijahedu ◊ sa raga e ◊ sa doṣ̱a i ◊ sa moha i ... ❉

[Section 16] kros̱o jatva sukho śayadi sutro · tatro nideśa bharadvayagotro bramano ... kros̱o jaṭ́ava na soyadi vistare kros̱o ... sukho śayadi · kayigo sukho · na soyadi cedas̱igo sukho ... ta kros̱asa paryavas̱ano madhuraprahano · vaso arya praśaśati budha ca śrap̱aka ca ... sakṣeva kros̱o jatvo kamakṣayo sukho śayadi dukhakṣayo na soyadi kileśakṣayo ❉

Source Colophon

Gandhāri Prakrit source text from British Library Kharoṣṭhī Fragments 4 and 13 (CKM 5 / NirdL1, Or. 14195.8–14). Birch-bark scroll, 1st century CE, from the Gandhāra region. Acquired by the British Library in 1994 as part of a collection of 28 scrolls preserved in an inscribed clay pot. Scribe: British Library scribe 6 (Glass 2000). Critical edition by Stefan Baums, published as Two Gāndhārī Commentaries on Early Buddhist Verses (LMU Munich, 2017). Freely available through the Buddhist Manuscripts from Gandhāra project, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München.

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