by Marc Mengel
The Religious Society of Friends — known as Quakers — emerged in mid-seventeenth-century England during a period of radical religious ferment. Founded by George Fox and others who sought direct experience of the Inner Light rather than creed or clergy, Friends developed practices that placed them at odds with established authority: refusing oaths, declining to doff hats to magistrates, meeting in silence, and witnessing against war. This is the official FAQ of the soc.religion.quaker newsgroup, compiled and maintained by Marc Mengel. It covers names and origins, history, the structure of worship and business meetings, Friends' beliefs, Quaker terminology and speech, and a bibliography for further reading. First posted in 1993 and updated regularly thereafter, it served as the primary introduction to Quakerism for thousands of people encountering the tradition for the first time through Usenet.
0. Overview
Contents:
- Names
- 1.1 Quakers
- 1.2 Shakers
- 1.3 Plymouth Brethren
- 1.4 Oatmeal, Motor Oil, etc.
- History
- 2.1 Origins
- 2.2 American Friends
- 2.3 "Programmed" and "Unprogrammed" Meetings
- 2.4 Worldwide Friends
- Meetings for Worship
- 3.1 Traditional/Unprogrammed/Silent Meetings
- 3.2 Programmed Meetings
- 3.3 Children at Meeting for Worship
- Meetings for Business
- 4.1 Monthly Meetings
- 4.2 Committees
- 4.3 Quarterly/Regional Meetings
- 4.4 Yearly/General Meetings
- Beliefs of Friends
- 5.1 Christianity
- 5.2 Authority
- 5.3 Marriage
- 5.4 War
- 5.5 Oaths
- 5.6 The Death Penalty, the Prison System, etc.
- 5.7 Rituals, sacraments, etc.
- 5.8 Dress
- Terms, Acronyms, etc.
- Speech Mannerisms
- 7.1 Thee and Thou (archaic)
- 7.2 I have a Concern...
- 7.3 Days of the Week
- 7.4 Speaking Truth to Power
- 7.5 Holding in the Light
- Where Can I Find...
- 8.1 a local Quaker meeting
- 8.2 Quaker publications
- 8.3 Electronic publications
- Bibliography
1. Names
1.1 Quakers
The term "Quaker" refers to a member of the Religious Society of Friends, which is the proper name of the sect. There are two reputed origins of the term. The first refers to people "quaking" or trembling when feeling moved by the Holy Spirit to speak in Meetings for Worship. The other, according to Elfrida Vipont Brown, is:
George Fox was arrested in Derby in October 1650 and charged with blasphemy. The magistrates who tried him were Gervase Bennett and Colonel Nathaniel Barton. George Fox was questioned intermittently over an eight hour period, during which at one point George Fox told the magistrates "Tremble at the word of the Lord." It was Justice Bennett who coined the name "Quakers" for the followers of George Fox.
1.2 Shakers
The "Quakers" are occasionally confused with the "Shakers"; the Shakers were to some extent a "spin-off" of the Quakers, a group started by a Manchester, England woman, Ann Lee, who was born Quaker. She formed a "celibate order" which started communities throughout the United States. The Shakers are quite interesting in their own right, adding speaking in tongues and free-form dancing to the end of a Quaker-style silent meeting. There are fewer than 10 Shakers left today in the last remaining Shaker community in Maine, but several of their communities are preserved as museums.
1.3 Plymouth Brethren
The Plymouth Brethren are not an offshoot of Quakerism and not a branch of the (German) Brethren church, to the best I have been informed.
1.4 Oatmeal, Motor Oil, etc.
Since the city of Philadelphia and the state of Pennsylvania in the United States were started by Quakers, many businesses and towns originating in that area mention Quakers in their names. In fact these names are particularly common in places like Quakertown, PA., where the names are actually derived from the name of the town.
This leads many to the incorrect conclusion that members of the Religious Society of Friends still are in the habit of wearing the late 1600s period clothing of the person pictured on the Quaker Oats box; this perhaps contributes to the common American confusion between Quakers and the Amish (who really do wear clothing styles standardized in the 1600s).
2. History
2.1 Origins
The Religious Society of Friends was started in England around 1650, by many people, the most famous being George Fox. They in fact intended to start a movement to unify the splintered Christian churches, rather than to start a separate sect. Many radical groups were formed in England about this time as a result of the turmoil, economic injustice, and starvation caused by the English Revolution and Civil War, and the repeated changes between Catholicism and Anglicism in England; however most of these groups disappeared soon after the restoration of the monarchy.
2.2 American Friends
Friends were active in New England almost from the beginning of the Quaker movement, as early as 1654. The Puritans of Massachusetts found Quaker ideas unacceptable and exiled Friends on pain of death. Between 1659 and 1661 one woman and three men were hanged for returning after such banishment. George Fox spent over a year in America in 1672. The Quaker population increased greatly after 1682 when William Penn (who was a Friend) set about the foundation of Pennsylvania and started the city of Philadelphia. Friends in general showed an enlightened attitude to Native Americans, and were also active in the movement against the slave trade. Later, they helped escaped slaves and worked for the abolition of slavery, due in part to the work and ministry of John Woolman (See "Bibliography").
2.3 "Programmed," "Unprogrammed," "Evangelical," etc. Meetings
During the Revival movement in the later 1800s many Friends Meetings were influenced by Revival preachers. Many of these later hired preachers and now hold more "conventional" services, with a preacher, choir, etc. These meetings often call themselves "Quaker Churches" or "Friend's Churches" rather than "Quaker Meetings" or "Friends Meetings." Some such branches of Quakerism refer to themselves as "Evangelical Friends," and some have gone so far as to hold baptisms and communion, which many consider an extreme departure from early Quakerism.
There are considered to have been quite a few "schisms" in Quakerism over the years; the overall history is far too complicated to describe here.
2.4 Worldwide Friends
Many of the Friends elsewhere in the world (besides Britain, Europe, and America) are more of the "Programmed" meeting variety. There are large numbers of Friends in various countries around the world, especially Kenya.
3. Meetings for Worship
3.1 Traditional/Unprogrammed/Silent Meetings
Silent Meetings for Worship are quite a bit different from most organized religious services. Basically those attending the meeting sit silently, trying to listen to the (Holy) Spirit, until someone is moved by the Spirit to speak. The person so moved generally stands, says what they have to say, and sits down. Meetings like this generally run for about an hour, and it is not out of the ordinary for a meeting to be silent the whole hour.
It is customary to wait a few minutes between speakers to allow time for consideration of what they have said.
It is considered bad form to "debate" a topic or otherwise argue a point at Meeting for Worship. More subtle forms of disagreement, such as telling a related story and how it made you feel bad, etc. are occasionally employed.
3.2 Programmed Meetings
A Quaker Church service is very similar in format to most Methodist or Baptist services, if a little more mellow. However, while it is uncommon for members of the congregation to rise to speak, this is not unheard of, and there are often periods of silence.
3.3 Children at Meeting for Worship
Many visitors to meeting, especially those to unprogrammed or silent meetings, worry a lot about their children and whether the children are being quiet enough. They should relax. While it would be appropriate to take your child out of meeting if the child is screaming or being noisy for long periods, the occasional noises of small children are generally welcomed. Some paper and crayons, or a book to read for older children is often helpful, too.
Most children, especially those of visitors, have a tough time sitting silently for a full hour. Fortunately most Meetings have some sort of "First Day School" or "Sunday school" for children. If you see an adult rising after the start of Meeting and all the children filing out, they're probably headed for the First Day School.
Friends are generally quite tolerant of babies and their noises. It should be considered normal at most unprogrammed meetings to breastfeed babies during meeting.
4. Meetings for Business
"Quakers are peculiar, and our organizational arrangements are too. We do not fit easily into any worldly model of governance, not even simple democracy."
— Jim Nichols
Groups of Friends who conduct business as a group are generally named by how often they meet, and the period between meetings is generally proportional to the size of the group (i.e. a group that meets monthly is a "Monthly Meeting," a group that meets quarterly is a "Quarterly Meeting," etc.)
Meetings for business (or more properly Meetings for Worship with a Concern for Business) are held in the manner of a silent meeting for worship, although there is a Clerk who attempts to find and record the collectively acquired insight of the Meeting. All decisions are made by finding the "Sense of the Meeting," which is a statement that feels right to everyone in the meeting at that time. These are generally recorded in the minutes of the meeting, after being approved.
4.1 Monthly Meetings
Local meetings that hold Meetings for Worship generally hold meetings for business once a month, and are called "Monthly Meetings." The Monthly Meeting usually deals with membership, marriages, paying rent, etc. for the meeting facilities and/or real estate. Monthly meetings sometimes have one or more "Preparative Meetings," which do business with the monthly meeting, but meet elsewhere.
4.2 Committees
Since most Unprogrammed Friends' meetings don't have a paid staff of any kind, most activities are performed by various Committees of the membership. Most larger meetings have at least 10 committees of varying description to maintain the building, make or organize food, watch the finances, send out a newsletter, etc.
Committees often recommend items to the Monthly meeting for action, and are generally required to meet (at least) annually.
4.3 Quarterly/Regional Meetings
Larger regional groups of Friends are usually groups of Monthly Meetings, which meet quarterly, and are often referred to as Quarterly Meetings or General Meetings. Representatives from the various Monthly Meetings generally attend such meetings. Quarterly meetings are often places to discuss issues in preparation for Yearly Meetings.
4.4 Yearly/General Meetings
Even larger groups of Friends are also usually groups of Monthly Meetings representing several regions, and are referred to as Yearly or General Meetings. Representatives from the various Monthly Meetings generally attend such meetings.
Some meetings are members of more than one Yearly Meeting.
There is no overall central organization which claims all Friends as members, although several organizations (e.g. Friends World Committee on Consultation) do provide services worldwide.
5. Beliefs of Friends
Friends' beliefs are a little hard to quantify, since Friends do not believe in having a fixed Creed or Dogma, but rather in seeking for the leadings of God within ourselves. However, some generalizations are possible, which are gone over below.
It is interesting to note that many of these positions have evolved over time, and while they now seem like fairly straightforward extensions of basic Quaker belief, they involved much discussion and soul-searching in the past.
Some issues are still evolving, and you will find that current issues like same-gender relationships, abortion, etc. are topics on which it is very difficult to achieve unity. At present, you can find Friends Meetings with nearly any viewpoint in the spectrum of possibilities on these issues, and that any official position is very carefully worded.
5.1 Christianity
The Religious Society of Friends is a Christian organization, in the sense that it is originally based on the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament. You will in general find some disagreement among Friends about whether there was a Virgin Birth, whether various miracles were supernatural occurrences or religious embellishments, whether Jesus was The Son of God, or just one of God's children, etc. You will in general find agreement that those differences are not important.
We can all agree that certain things "feel Right," that there is a part of us that knows what right and wrong are, and that that part of us is the "Inner Light," or in some sense God.
Friends have our own traditional Universalism, which is quite different from Unitarian Universalism. One may find many expressions of our traditional Quaker Universalism in the writings of George Fox, Isaac Penington, Robert Barclay, William Penn, John Richardson, and other first- and second-generation Friends — and in the writings of John Woolman, etc.
This traditional Quaker Universalism does not say that all religions are completely true, let alone that they are equally true. But it affirms that, as all people have the Light (John 1:9), so they have it whether they consider themselves Christians or not; and people of all faiths and upbringings may give expression to the promptings of that Light in their words and deeds, so that, as a result, one finds the Light expressing itself from time to time through religious leaders within all faiths. Thus in a religion which overall contains many errors — be it Buddhism or Hinduism or Protestantism or Catholicism — there will nevertheless be some genuine and wonderful expressions of the Light. One who knows Christ will recognize and honor these expressions of the Light, even as she recognizes and avoids the errors elsewhere in those religions.
This is why, at Quaker Meetings, people occasionally refer to the Tao Te Ching, the Koran, etc. as well as various translations of the Bible. (And sometimes Winnie The Pooh.)
5.2 Authority
Friends generally have held that people are people; no one is more "holy" than anyone else (except perhaps Christ), and that everyone has equal access to the part of God in all of us. Thus Friends have traditionally refused to use honorifics like "Your Honor," "Your Eminence," etc.
The only authority a Meeting has is that its members all agree that its actions are in keeping with that of God of each of its members. This is of course the Highest Form of authority to a Friend.
These beliefs about authority have a lot to do with Friends' beliefs about Marriage, War, etc. and the reason Friends do not have "priests" that perform blessings, marriages, etc.
Friends have also traditionally refused to use terms of royalty, or of office, like "Your Highness" or "Your Honor." As Barclay writes:
Many of us have been badly beaten and buffeted about, and we have even been imprisoned for several months for no other reason except that we would not uncover our heads or bow our bodies to satisfy the proud and unreasonable whims of egotistical men. Certainly the innocent practice of standing still and erect without taking off our hats any more than our shoes does not show as much rudeness as the beatings and knocking about we have had because of our practice.
George Fox put it plainly in his Journal:
When the Lord sent me forth into the world, he forbade me to put off my hat to any, high or low...neither might I bow or scrape with my leg to any one.
5.3 Marriage
Officially, two Friends marry each other under the care of the meeting, but no person "marries" them — God does. Most meetings reserve the right to refuse to take a marriage under their care if they feel the couple is not "clear" about their intention to marry. Generally all present at the ceremony sign the wedding certificate.
5.4 War
Friends have generally refused to fight in wars, and in particular refused the draft, since the mid to late 1600s. As the "George Fox Song" says:
If we give you a rifle
will you fight for the Lord?
But you can't kill the Devil
with a gun or a sword.
Friends groups like the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL) lobby heavily against military involvement and military spending along with their other priorities.
Friends are also concerned about finding causes of war in our daily lives — do you own something that someone else would kill to have?
Friends organizations (like the Friends Ambulance Unit in both World Wars) have attempted to reduce the suffering of wars, and Quaker House near the United Nations is active in various diplomatic efforts, allowing "off the record" discussions between parties who don't officially recognize one another.
5.5 Oaths
Friends traditionally refuse to take oaths of any kind, including oaths of fealty, pledges of allegiance, etc. The reasoning is drawn from the book of Matthew.
5.6 The Death Penalty, the Prison System, etc.
"Judge not, lest ye be judged"; "Let that person among you who is without sin cast the first stone..." While early Friends (as in early Pennsylvania law) had a death penalty for some crimes, most modern Friends organizations are very active in anti-death-penalty and prison reform/abolition groups, as much for pragmatic reasons as for moral ones.
5.7 Rituals, sacraments, etc.
Friends generally conduct very simple weddings and memorial services and do not outwardly observe baptism or the Lord's Supper. Friends seek to experience the sacraments in an inward and continuing manner without symbols. The general feeling is that rituals tend to become more important than the meaning they are intended to convey.
5.8 Dress
Many people are under the impression that Quakers have rules about clothing, hats, bonnets, etc. similar to the standards among the Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, and certain Orthodox Jewish sects. While most Friends do dress less ostentatiously than the average, this is more a reflection of the overall Quaker emphasis on the inner spirit rather than outward appearances, not any sort of enforced restriction on clothing.
6. Terms and Acronyms
AFSC, CFSC, etc. — American (Canadian, etc.) Friends Service Committee — a national organization which works on projects and programs reflecting traditional Friends' issues.
Birthright/Convinced — Friends who are born to Quaker families and decide to stay with it are called "birthright" Friends; those who join later are "convinced." The term "converted" is rarely if ever used.
Clearness — When it is clear to you that something is right.
Clearness Committee — A group formed to help someone decide if something is right. Often formed to interview a couple contemplating marriage.
Faith and Practice — Title of a book published by several Yearly Meetings which describes "standard" practices for accepting new members, holding business meetings, etc. as well as a lot of the philosophy behind them. A good source of Queries, and good Quakerly form letters. There are many versions, most notably the Britain Yearly Meeting and Philadelphia Yearly Meeting versions.
FCNL — Friends Committee on National Legislation — a lobbying group that works for legislation reflecting traditional Friends' issues.
FGC/FUM — Friends General Conference/Friends United Meeting — national organizations of Friends that provide support services for Monthly and Yearly Meetings and organize yearly national gatherings. FGC's membership is predominantly unprogrammed meetings, while FUM's membership is predominantly programmed meetings.
FWCC — Friends World Committee on Consultation — like FGC or FUM, but on a worldwide scale.
Light — Friends often speak of the Light Within, which is a term for that of God in each of us.
Query — A good question to ask yourself, often from some published source, often a leading question; like "Do you seek to find that of God in those around you, especially those you disagree with?"
Sense of the Meeting — A statement of what the group agrees with or is in unity with, or more correctly the idea that such a statement expresses.
Weighty Friends — Folks who can be counted on to say something deep that really makes you think. Especially someone good at finding the Sense of a Meeting and expressing it.
7. Speech Mannerisms
7.1 Thee and Thou (archaic)
Among early Quakers it was traditional to call everyone and anyone "thee" and "thou," including royalty and church officials, who were to be referred to in the plural in deference to their official Holier than Thou position. This practice continued for some time after English speakers started calling everyone "you" rather than "thou." Only a few (usually older) Friends use thee and thou anymore.
7.2 I have a Concern...
This is the traditional method of bringing up an issue to a Meeting for business. A much stronger statement than it sounds like, since one unsettled concern about something will stop it from being done. Usage: "I have a concern that replacing this mailbox will hurt the baby birds nesting in the current one..."
7.3 Days of the Week
Early Friends made a big deal out of removing names of mythological figures (Greek, Roman, and Norse Gods) and such from their speech. Thus the days of the week are referred to as "First Day" through "Seventh Day" instead of Sunday through Saturday, and "First Month" through "Twelfth Month" instead of January through December. This notation is common in writings like The Journal of John Woolman and other classic Friends writings.
Modern Friends are often not so picky, but Minutes of business meetings, etc. often still refer to the days numerically, and it is invariably called "First Day School" not "Sunday School" at Quaker meetings in the US.
7.4 Speaking Truth to Power
Refers to the general concept of the child asking the Emperor "why aren't you wearing any clothes?" — that is, that the truth often helps those in power stop deluding themselves.
7.5 Holding in the Light
Thinking of someone or something while worshipping, in effect praying for them silently.
8. Where Can I Find...
8.1 A Local Quaker Meeting
In your local telephone directory, look for: "Friends Meeting," "Friends Church," "Friends Fellowship," "Friends House," "Religious Society of Friends," or "Society of Friends."
In the UK, Quakers Britain maintains a searchable directory at quaker.org.uk.
8.2 Quaker Publications
Barclay Press — 110 Elliott Rd., Newberg, OR, USA 97132.
Friends' Book Shop / Pendle Hill Bookstore — Box J, Wallingford PA, USA 19086.
Friends United Press — 101-A Quaker Hill Dr., Richmond IN, USA, 47374.
Friends General Conference Bookstore — 1216 Arch St., 2B, Philadelphia PA, USA, 19107 (quakerbooks.org).
Friends House — 173-177 Euston Road, London, UK. NW1 2BJ.
8.3 Electronic Publications
The Quaker Electronic Archive and the Quaker Information Center maintain online resources. The newsgroup soc.religion.quaker on Usenet was the main gathering place for Friends online from the early 1990s onward.
9. Bibliography
A Certain Kind of Perfection, Margery Post Abbott, Pendle Hill Publications.
The People Called Quakers, D. Elton Trueblood, Barclay Press.
Quaker by Convincement, Geoffrey Hubbard, Quaker Home Service, London.
The Quaker Reader, Jessamyn West (Ed.), Pendle Hill Press.
Why Friends are Friends, Jack Wilcuts, Barclay Press.
Friends for 300 Years, Howard Brinton, Pendle Hill, 1952. Combines history and interpretation in an excellent single volume on the essentials of Quakerism.
Guide to Quaker Practice, Howard Brinton, Pendle Hill pamphlet #20.
The Faith and Practice of Quakers, Rufus M. Jones, Doran, N.Y., 1938.
Quaker Spirituality, ed. Douglas Steere, Paulist Press, 1984.
Barclay's Apology in Modern English, Dean Freiday, editor, 1967.
The Amazing Fact of Quaker Worship, George H. Gorman, Swarthmore Lecture, 1973.
Beyond Majority Rule: Voteless Decisions in the Religious Society of Friends, Michael J. Sheeran, S.J., Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, 1983.
What Is Quakerism?: A Primer, George T. Peck, Pendle Hill Pamphlet #277.
Faith and Practice: A Quaker Guide to Christian Discipline, Pacific Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends.
Faith and Practice: A Book of Christian Discipline, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends.
Christian Faith and Practice in the Experience of the Society of Friends, Britain Yearly Meeting.
The Beginnings of Quakerism, William C. Braithwaite, Rowntree Series of Quaker Histories.
Portrait in Grey: A Short History of the Quakers, John Punshon, Quaker Home Service, London, 1984.
The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America, Margaret Hope Bacon, New Society Publishers, Philadelphia, 1985.
The Quaker Peace Testimony: 1660 to 1914, Peter Brock, Sessions Book Trust, York, 1990.
The Journal of George Fox.
The Journal of John Woolman.
A Testament of Devotion, Thomas R. Kelly, Harper and Bros., NY, 1941.
First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism, H. Larry Ingle, Oxford University Press, 1994.
Colophon
This document is the official Frequently Asked Questions guide for the soc.religion.quaker newsgroup on Usenet, compiled and maintained by Marc Mengel. It was first assembled in response to requests from group participants, and posted monthly to soc.religion.quaker, soc.answers, and news.answers. The version preserved here was posted on 7 October 2003. Original Message-ID: [email protected].
The soc.religion.quaker newsgroup was active from the early 1990s and served as a gathering place for Quakers and those curious about the Religious Society of Friends throughout the Usenet era.
Preserved from the Usenet archive for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.
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