Xiongnu, Wusun, Yuezhi, Kangju, and the Oasis Road

This is a Good Works Translation produced by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese text of Ban Gu's Han Shu, chapter 96, the Western Regions account.

The chapter is one of the great administrative maps of Inner Asia. It records the two roads west from the Jade Gate and Yang Pass, the oasis states between Han and the Pamirs, Xiongnu control of the region, Han commanderies and agricultural garrisons, the Protector-General, Shanshan and Khotan, Jibin and Anxi, the Great Yuezhi, Kangju, Dawan, the Sai/Saka-connected country, Wusun marriage politics, Cheshi, and the final judgment on the cost and meaning of the Western Regions policy.

For the Scythian shelf, Han Shu 96 is indispensable because it gives the eastern imperial archive for peoples and places that Greek and Iranian sources approach from the other side: Saka/Sai, Wusun, Yuezhi, Kangju, Dawan, Xiongnu, and the oasis road that joins the steppe, Tarim Basin, Iranian plateau, and Han frontier.

The English translation was newly made from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. Existing English displays and translations were used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Translation

Roads, Protectorate, and Shanshan

The Western Regions first opened communication in the time of Emperor Wu. Originally there were thirty-six states; afterward they gradually divided until there were more than fifty. All lay west of the Xiongnu and south of Wusun. To the north and south were great mountains, and in the middle was a river. From east to west the region extended more than six thousand li, and from north to south more than a thousand li. In the east it joined Han, narrowed by the Jade Gate and Yang Pass; in the west it was bounded by the Congling Mountains. Its southern mountains extended eastward from Jincheng and joined the Southern Mountains of Han.

The river had two sources: one came out of the Congling Mountains, and one came out of Yutian. Yutian lay below the southern mountains. Its river flowed north, joined the Congling river, and poured east into Puchang Sea. Puchang Sea, also called the Salt Marsh, was more than three hundred li from the Jade Gate and Yang Pass, and measured three hundred li in breadth and length. Its water remained still; it did not increase in winter or summer. All considered that it ran hidden underground and emerged south at Jishi, becoming the Yellow River of the Middle States.

From the Jade Gate and Yang Pass out into the Western Regions there were two roads. From Shanshan, skirting north of the Southern Mountains, one followed the river west to Shache; this was the southern road. When the southern road crossed west beyond the Congling, it led out to the Great Yuezhi and Anxi. From the court of the Former King of Cheshi, following the Northern Mountains and the river west to Shule, was the northern road. When the northern road crossed west beyond the Congling, it led out to Dawan, Kangju, Yancai, and Yanqi.

The states of the Western Regions were in general settled on the soil. They had walled cities, fields, and livestock, and their customs differed from those of the Xiongnu and Wusun. Therefore they were all made subject to the Xiongnu. On the western edge of the Xiongnu, the Rizhu King established the commandant of servants and attendants and made him lead the Western Regions. He usually dwelt among Yanqi, Weixu, and Weili, taxing the various states and taking wealth to supply himself.

From the decline of Zhou, the Rong and Di lived intermingled north of the Jing and Wei rivers. When the First Emperor of Qin repelled the Rong and Di and built the Long Wall, he bounded the Middle States, but in the west it went no farther than Lintao.

From the rise of Han to Emperor Wu, Han undertook campaigns against the four Yi and broadened its awe and virtue, while Zhang Qian first opened traces of the Western Regions. Afterward the cavalry general struck and broke the Xiongnu right lands, and the Kings of Hunye and Xiutu surrendered. Their land was then emptied. Han first built west of Lingju, first established Jiuquan Commandery, and later gradually moved people there to fill it out. It divided and established Wuwei, Zhangye, and Dunhuang, making a line of four commanderies and occupying the two passes.

After the General of Ershi campaigned against Dawan, the Western Regions were shaken with fear, and many sent envoys to come with tribute. Han envoys to the Western Regions increasingly obtained their functions. Then from Dunhuang west to the Salt Marsh, watch-stations were raised here and there, and at Luntai and Quli there were several hundred agricultural garrison soldiers. A commandant for envoys was established to lead and protect them, in order to supply those who served as envoys to foreign states.

By the time of Emperor Xuan, Han sent a marshal of the guard as envoy to protect several states west of Shanshan. When Gushi was broken but not completely destroyed, it was divided into the Former and Later Kings of Cheshi and the six states north of the mountains. At that time Han alone protected the southern road and could not yet fully annex the northern road; nevertheless the Xiongnu were no longer secure.

After this the Rizhu King rebelled against the chanyu and led his multitude to come and surrender. Zheng Ji, envoy protecting the lands west of Shanshan, went to meet him. When he had reached Han, the Rizhu King was enfeoffed as Marquis of Guide, and Ji as Marquis of Anyuan. This year was the third year of Shenjue. Because Ji was then made to protect the northern road as well, he was titled Protector-General. The office of Protector-General began with Ji's establishment. From this time the commandant of servants and attendants was abolished; the Xiongnu became still weaker and could not come near the Western Regions.

Then Han moved agricultural garrisons, farming at Beixujian and opening the lands of Shache. The commandant of agricultural garrisons first became subordinate to the Protector-General. The Protector-General supervised and observed the movements of Wusun, Kangju, and the foreign states. When there was a change, he reported it. If they could be pacified and gathered, he pacified and gathered them; if they could be attacked, he attacked them. The Protector-General governed from Wulei City, two thousand seven hundred thirty-eight li from Yang Pass and near the agricultural officials of Quli. The land was fertile and rich, and it was central within the Western Regions; therefore the Protector-General governed from there.

By the time of Emperor Yuan, Han again established the Wuji commandants, farming at the court of the Former King of Cheshi. At this time Zilizhi, the Xiongnu king of Eastern Pulei, led more than seventeen hundred of his people and surrendered to the Protector-General. The Protector-General divided the land of Wutanzili west of the Later King of Cheshi and settled them there.

After Emperors Xuan and Yuan, the chanyu called himself a vassal-subject, and the Western Regions obeyed. Their lands, mountains, rivers, kings and marquises, households, numbers, roads, distances, and remoteness or nearness were then made detailed and true.

Going out from Yang Pass and beginning with the nearest, there was Ruoqiang. The king of Ruoqiang was titled "King Who Goes from the Hu and Comes." It was eighteen hundred li from Yang Pass and sixty-three hundred li from Chang'an. It lay off to the southwest and was not on the main road. It had four hundred fifty households, seventeen hundred fifty people, and five hundred men able to bear arms. To the west it bordered Qiemo. The people followed their herds in pursuit of water and grass and did not farm; they depended on grain from Shanshan and Qiemo. The mountains had iron, and they made their own weapons. Their weapons were bows, spears, Fu knives, swords, and armor. Going northwest to Shanshan, one then reached the road.

The state of Shanshan was originally called Loulan. Its king governed from Yuni City. It was sixteen hundred li from Yang Pass and sixty-one hundred li from Chang'an. It had fifteen hundred seventy households, fourteen thousand one hundred people, and two thousand nine hundred twelve men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one marquis who repelled the Hu, one commandant of Shanshan, one commandant who struck Cheshi, one left and one right juqu, one lord who struck Cheshi, and two chief interpreters. Northwest it was seventeen hundred eighty-five li from the Protector-General's seat; thirteen hundred sixty-five li to the Mountain State; and eighteen hundred ninety li northwest to Cheshi. The land was sandy and saline, with little farmland. The people farmed on borrowed land and depended on grain from neighboring states. The state produced jade, and had much reed, tamarisk, hu-tong, and white grass. The people followed the herds in pursuit of water and grass, had donkeys and horses, and many camels. They could make weapons, the same as Ruoqiang.

At first Emperor Wu was moved by Zhang Qian's words and had set his heart on opening communication with Dawan and the other states. Envoys could be seen one after another on the road; in a single year there were sometimes more than ten groups. Loulan and Gushi lay on the road and suffered from this. They attacked and plundered Han envoys such as Wang Hui, and they repeatedly served as the eyes and ears of the Xiongnu, causing Xiongnu troops to intercept Han envoys. Han envoys often said that these states had cities and towns, weak soldiers, and were easy to attack. Therefore Emperor Wu sent Zhao Ponu, Marquis Congpiao, to command dependent-state cavalry and commandery troops, several tens of thousands in all, to strike Gushi. Wang Hui had repeatedly been distressed by Loulan, and the emperor ordered Hui to assist Ponu in commanding troops. Ponu and more than seven hundred light cavalry arrived first, captured the king of Loulan, and then broke Gushi. He then displayed military awe to move Wusun, Dawan, and the states of their kind. On his return, Ponu was enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhuoye, and Hui as Marquis of Hao. From this time Han lined watch-stations and barriers as far as the Jade Gate.

After Loulan surrendered and offered tribute, the Xiongnu heard of it and mobilized troops to attack it. Then Loulan sent one son as hostage to the Xiongnu and one son as hostage to Han. Later, when the Ershi army struck Dawan, the Xiongnu wanted to intercept it, but Ershi's troops were strong and they did not dare stand against them. They then sent cavalry by way of Loulan to wait for Han envoys who passed afterward, intending to cut off communication. At that time Ren Wen, army corrector of Han, led troops and garrisoned Jade Gate Pass as the rear guard for Ershi. He captured living prisoners, learned the situation, and reported it. The emperor ordered Wen to take the convenient route and lead troops to capture the king of Loulan. He was to bring him to the palace gate and interrogate and reproach him according to the registers. The king answered, "A small state between great states cannot be secure unless it belongs to both. I ask to move my state and enter Han territory to dwell." The emperor considered his words upright, sent him back to his state, and also made him watch and observe the Xiongnu. From this time the Xiongnu did not greatly trust Loulan.

In the first year of Zhenghe, the king of Loulan died. The people of the state came and requested the hostage son who was in Han, wishing to establish him. The hostage son had often been convicted under Han law and sent down to the silkworm chamber for palace punishment; therefore he was not sent. Han replied, "The attendant son is loved by the Son of Heaven and cannot be sent. Establish instead the next one who ought to be established." Loulan established another king. Han again demanded a hostage son, and Loulan also sent one son as hostage to the Xiongnu.

Later the king died again. The Xiongnu heard of it first, sent back the hostage son, and he was able to be established as king. Han sent an envoy with an imperial order to the new king, ordering him to enter court, where the Son of Heaven would add generous rewards. The later wife of the king of Loulan was his former stepmother. She said to the king, "The former king sent two sons as hostages to Han, and neither returned. Why do you want to go to court?" The king followed her plan and declined to the envoy, saying, "I have just been established, and the state is not yet settled. I ask to wait until a later year to enter and see the Son of Heaven."

Yet Loulan lay farthest on the eastern edge, near Han, facing Bailongdui, where water and grass were lacking. It was constantly responsible for issuing guides, carrying water and bearing grain, and sending and receiving Han envoys. It was also repeatedly raided by officials and soldiers, had been punished and warned, and found communication with Han inconvenient. Later it was again turned by Xiongnu counter-intelligence and repeatedly intercepted and killed Han envoys. Its younger brother Weituqi surrendered to Han and reported the whole situation.

In the fourth year of Yuanfeng, the grand general Huo Guang memorialized that Fu Jiezi, superintendent of Pingle, should be sent to assassinate the king. Jiezi lightly led brave men, carried gold and money, and spread the claim that he was going to present gifts to foreign states. When he reached Loulan, he deceived its king, saying he wished to give him gifts. The king was pleased and drank with Jiezi. When he was drunk, Jiezi took the king aside for private conversation. Two strong men stabbed and killed him from behind, and the nobles and attendants all scattered and fled.

Jiezi announced and instructed them: "The king has borne guilt against Han. The Son of Heaven sent me to execute the king. Another king is to be established: the king's younger brother Weituqi, who is in Han. Han troops are just arriving. Do not dare move, or you will bring the destruction of your state on yourselves." Jiezi then cut off the head of King Changgui, rode by relay to the palace gate, and hung the head below the northern gate-tower. Jiezi was enfeoffed as Marquis of Yiyang.

Then Han established Weituqi as king and changed the name of his state to Shanshan. It carved a seal and badge for him, gave him a palace woman as wife, prepared chariots, cavalry, baggage, and equipment, and the chancellor led the hundred officials to escort him outside Heng Gate, where they sacrificed to the road and sent him off. The king personally requested of the Son of Heaven: "I have been in Han for a long time. Now I return alone and weak, while the former king has a son there; I fear I will be killed. In the state there is Yixun City, whose land is fertile and fine. I ask Han to send two generals to farm and accumulate grain there, so that I may rely on their awe and weight." Then Han sent one marshal and forty officials and soldiers to farm at Yixun and thereby settle and pacify it. Later a commandant was separately established. The office at Yixun began from this.

Shanshan faced the main Han road. Westward it connected with Qiemo, seven hundred twenty li away. From Qiemo onward, all sowed the five grains. As for land, grasses, trees, livestock, products, and weapons, they were broadly the same as Han; where there were differences, they are recorded.

Southern Road Oasis States

The state of Qiemo: the king governed at Qiemo City. It was six thousand eight hundred twenty li from Chang'an. It had two hundred thirty households, sixteen hundred ten people, and three hundred twenty men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, and one chief interpreter. Northwest to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand two hundred fifty-eight li. To the north it bordered Weili, and south to Xiaowan was about three days' travel. It had grapes and various fruits. Westward it connected with Jingjue, two thousand li away.

The state of Xiaowan: the king governed at Yuling City. It was seven thousand two hundred ten li from Chang'an. It had one hundred fifty households, one thousand fifty people, and two hundred men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, and one left and one right commandant. Northwest to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand five hundred fifty-eight li. To the east it bordered Ruoqiang. It lay off to the south and was not on the road.

The state of Jingjue: the king governed at Jingjue City. It was eight thousand eight hundred twenty li from Chang'an. It had four hundred eighty households, three thousand three hundred sixty people, and five hundred men able to bear arms. It had one commandant of Jingjue, one left and one right general, and one chief interpreter. North to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand seven hundred twenty-three li. South to the state of Ronglu was four days' travel. The land was narrow and constricted. Westward it connected with Yumi, four hundred sixty li away.

The state of Ronglu: the king governed at Beipin City. It was eight thousand three hundred li from Chang'an. It had two hundred forty households, sixteen hundred ten people, and three hundred men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand eight hundred fifty-eight li. To the east it bordered Xiaowan, to the south Ruoqiang, and to the west Qule. It lay off to the south and was not on the road.

The state of Yumi: the king governed at Yumi City. It was nine thousand two hundred eighty li from Chang'an. It had three thousand three hundred forty households, twenty thousand forty people, and three thousand five hundred forty men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one left and one right cavalry lord, and two chief interpreters. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was three thousand five hundred fifty-three li. To the south it bordered Qule, to the northeast Qiuci, to the northwest Gumo. Westward it connected with Yutian, three hundred ninety li away. It is now called Ningmi.

The state of Qule: the king governed at Jiandu City. It was nine thousand nine hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had three hundred ten households, two thousand one hundred seventy people, and three hundred men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was three thousand eight hundred fifty-two li. To the east it bordered Ronglu, to the west Ruoqiang, and to the north Yumi.

The state of Yutian: the king governed at Western City. It was nine thousand six hundred seventy li from Chang'an. It had three thousand three hundred households, nineteen thousand three hundred people, and two thousand four hundred men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right cavalry lord, one chief of the eastern city, one chief of the western city, and one chief interpreter. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was three thousand nine hundred forty-seven li. To the south it bordered Ruoqiang, and to the north Gumo. West of Yutian, the waters all flowed west and poured into the Western Sea; east of it, the waters flowed east and poured into the Salt Marsh, where the source of the Yellow River emerged. There were many jades and stones. Westward it connected with Pishan, three hundred eighty li away.

The state of Pishan: the king governed at Pishan City. It was ten thousand fifty li from Chang'an. It had five hundred households, three thousand five hundred people, and five hundred men able to bear arms. It had one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one cavalry lord, and one chief interpreter. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was four thousand two hundred ninety-two li. Southwest to the state of Wucha was one thousand three hundred forty li. To the south it bordered Tiandu. North to Gumo was one thousand four hundred fifty li. Southwest it faced the road to Jibin and Wuyishanli; northwest it connected with Shache, three hundred eighty li away.

The state of Wucha: the king governed at Wucha City. It was nine thousand nine hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had four hundred ninety households, two thousand seven hundred thirty-three people, and seven hundred forty men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was four thousand eight hundred ninety-two li. To the north it bordered Zihe and Puli; to the west, Nandou. The people lived in the mountains and farmed among stones. They had white grass. They piled stones to make houses. The people drank with joined hands. They produced small pacing horses. They had donkeys but no cattle. To its west there was the Suspended Crossing, five thousand eight hundred eighty-eight li from Yang Pass and five thousand two hundred li from the Protector-General's seat. The Suspended Crossing was a stone mountain: the ravines and valleys did not communicate, and people crossed by pulling one another with ropes.

The state of Xiye: the king was titled king of Zihe and governed at the Hujian Valley. It was ten thousand two hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had three hundred fifty households, four thousand people, and one thousand men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was five thousand forty-six li. To the east it bordered Pishan, to the southwest Wucha, to the north Shache, and to the west Puli. Puli, Fanyinai, and Wulei were all of the same class as Xiye. Xiye differed from the Hu: its kind were Qiang and Di moving states, following their herds in pursuit of water and grass, coming and going. The land of Zihe produced jades and stones.

The state of Puli: the king governed at Puli Valley. It was nine thousand five hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had six hundred fifty households, five thousand people, and two thousand men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was five thousand three hundred ninety-six li. East to Shache was five hundred forty li; north to Shule five hundred fifty li. To the south it bordered Xiye/Zihe, and west to Wulei was five hundred forty li. It had one marquis and one commandant. It farmed borrowed land in Shache. Its stock and customs were the same as Zihe.

The state of Yinai: the king governed at a place ten thousand one hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had one hundred twenty-five households, six hundred seventy people, and three hundred fifty men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand seven hundred thirty li. It was five hundred forty li to Shache, five hundred forty li to Wulei, and six hundred fifty li north to Shule. To the south it bordered Zihe, and its customs were the same as theirs. It had little grain and farmed borrowed land in Shule and Shache.

The state of Wulei: the king governed at Lu City. It was nine thousand nine hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had one thousand households, seven thousand people, and three thousand men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand four hundred sixty-five li. South to Puli was five hundred forty li. To the south it bordered Wucha, to the north Juandu, and to the west the Great Yuezhi. Its clothing was of the same class as Wusun, and its customs were the same as Zihe.

The state of Nandou: the king governed at a place ten thousand one hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had five thousand households, thirty-one thousand people, and eight thousand men able to bear arms. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand eight hundred fifty li. West to Wulei was three hundred forty li; southwest to Jibin three hundred thirty li. To the south it bordered Ruoqiang, to the north Xiuxun, and to the west the Great Yuezhi. It sowed the five grains, grapes, and various fruits. It had silver, copper, and iron, and its weapons were made like those of the various states. It was subject to Jibin.

Jibin, Anxi, and the Great Yuezhi

The state of Jibin: the king governed at Xunxian City. It was twelve thousand two hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. Its households, population, and men able to bear arms were numerous; it was a great state. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was six thousand eight hundred forty li; east to the state of Wucha was two thousand two hundred fifty li; northeast to the state of Nandou was nine days' travel. To the northwest it bordered the Great Yuezhi, and to the southwest Wuyishanli.

Long ago, when the Xiongnu broke the Great Yuezhi, the Great Yuezhi went west and ruled Daxia, while the Sai king went south and ruled Jibin. The Sai stock scattered and broke apart, and in many places became several states. From Shule west and north, Xiuxun, Juandu, and the states of their kind were all formerly of Sai stock.

The land of Jibin was level, warm, and mild. It had alfalfa, mixed grasses, strange trees, sandalwood, huai, catalpa, bamboo, and lacquer trees. They sowed the five grains, grapes, and various fruits, and manured and cultivated gardens and fields. The ground was damp below and produced rice. In winter they ate fresh vegetables. The people were skillful. They carved designs and cut engravings, built palaces and houses, wove woolen rugs, embroidered patterned work, and liked prepared foods. They had gold, silver, copper, and tin, making them into vessels. The markets were arranged in rows. They used gold and silver as money; the face showed a man on horseback, the reverse a human face. They produced humped cattle, water buffalo, elephants, great dogs, macaques, peacocks, pearls and beads, coral, amber, and bi-liuli. Their other livestock were the same as in the various states.

Since Emperor Wu first opened communication with Jibin, it considered itself utterly distant and beyond the reach of Han troops. Its king Wutoula repeatedly plundered and killed Han envoys. When Wutoula died, his son succeeded him and sent envoys with offerings. Wen Zhong, Han envoy and commandant of the passes, escorted his envoys. The king again wanted to harm Zhong. Zhong became aware of it, and together with Yinmofu, son of the king of Rongqu, plotted jointly, attacked Jibin, killed its king, established Yinmofu as king of Jibin, and gave him a seal and ribbon.

Later, the army scout Zhao De was sent to Jibin. He and Yinmofu fell into disagreement. Yinmofu put De in chains, killed his deputy and more than seventy men below him, and sent an envoy with a letter to apologize. Emperor Yuan considered that it was an utterly remote region and did not record the offense. He released its envoy at the Suspended Crossing and cut off communication.

In the time of Emperor Cheng, Jibin again sent envoys to offer tribute and apologize for its offense. Han wanted to send an envoy in reply to escort its envoys. Du Qin persuaded the grand general Wang Feng, saying: "The former king of Jibin, Yinmofu, was originally established by Han, but afterward suddenly rebelled. No virtue is greater than giving a state to a man and making him the father of its people; no crime is greater than seizing and killing envoys. The reason he did not repay kindness and did not fear punishment was that he knew he was utterly distant and that troops would not reach him.

"When they have requests, their words are humble; when they have no desires, they are arrogant and insulting. In the end they cannot be cherished and made obedient. In general, when the Middle States gives communication and generous treatment to the Man and Yi, and swiftly satisfies their requests, it is because their lands border us and they can become raiders. Now the barriers of the Suspended Crossing are not something Jibin can cross. If they look toward us with longing, it is not enough to secure the Western Regions; if they do not attach themselves, they cannot endanger the walled cities.

"Formerly they personally rebelled against the proper bond, and their evil was violent in the Western Regions. Therefore communication was cut off. Now they repent and come, but there are no relatives or nobles among them; those who present offerings are all travelling merchants and base men, who want to open trade and market exchange under the name of offerings. Therefore, to trouble envoys by sending them as far as the Suspended Crossing may cause us to lose the truth and be deceived.

"In general, the reason for sending envoys to escort guests is to guard and protect them from raiders and harm. From south of Pishan onward, there are four or five states that are no longer subject to Han. More than a hundred scouts and soldiers beat knives and dippers through the five watches of the night to defend themselves, and even so they are sometimes invaded and robbed. Donkeys and livestock carry grain, and they have to depend on the various states for rations and food in order to support themselves. Some states are poor and small and cannot feed them; others are fierce and crafty and refuse to supply them. Holding the credential staff of mighty Han, they starve among mountains and valleys. They beg and obtain nothing, and after being separated for one or two ten-day periods, men and animals are abandoned in the empty wilds and do not return.

"They must also pass the mountains of Great Headache and Little Headache, and the slopes of Red Earth and Body Heat, which make men's bodies hot and without color, with headache, vomiting, and retching; donkeys and livestock are all the same. There are also the Three Pools and the Coiled-Stone Slope. The path is only one chi six or seven cun wide, and at the longest runs thirty li. It faces depths, rugged and immeasurable. Travellers, mounted and on foot, hold one another, pulling one another with ropes, and only after more than two thousand li do they reach the Suspended Crossing. When animals fall, before they are halfway down the pits and valleys they are utterly smashed; when men fall, the situation does not allow others to gather and inspect them. The dangers, obstacles, and harms cannot be fully described.

"The sage kings divided the Nine Provinces and regulated the Five Services, working to make the inner realm flourish and not seeking what was outside. Now to send envoys bearing the command of the Most Honored, escorting barbarian merchants, laboring multitudes of officials and soldiers, crossing dangerous roads, and exhausting what we rely on in order to serve what is useless, is not a lasting plan. Since the envoy has already received the credential staff, he may go as far as Pishan and return." Wang Feng memorialized in accord with Qin's words. In truth Jibin valued rewards and gifts and trade; its envoys came once every several years.

The state of Wuyishanli: its king was twelve thousand two hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. Its households, population, and men able to bear arms were numerous; it was a great state. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was sixty days' travel. To the east it bordered Jibin, to the north Putao, and to the west Liqian and Tiaozhi.

Travelling about a hundred days, one then reached Tiaozhi. The state bordered the Western Sea. It was hot and damp, and they farmed rice. There were great birds whose eggs were like jars. The people were very numerous; here and there they had lesser chiefs. Anxi controlled and subordinated it, treating it as an outer state. They were good at conjuring. The elders of Anxi had handed down reports that Tiaozhi had the Weak Water and the Queen Mother of the West; they too had never seen them. From Tiaozhi, taking the water westward, one could travel about a hundred days and come near the place where the sun enters, they said.

The land of Wuyi was hot, flat, and overgrown. Its grasses and trees, livestock and products, five grains, fruits and vegetables, foods and drinks, palaces and houses, market rows, money and goods, weapons, gold, pearls, and the like were all the same as Jibin. It also had taoba, lions, and rhinoceroses. By custom they valued reckless killing. Their money alone had a human head on the face and a horseman on the reverse. They decorated staffs with gold and silver. It was utterly distant, and Han envoys rarely arrived. Going out from the Jade Gate and Yang Pass by the southern road, passing through Shanshan and travelling south, one reached Wuyishanli; this was the extreme of the southern road.

The state of Anxi: the king governed at Pandou City. It was eleven thousand six hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. To the north it bordered Kangju, to the east Wuyishanli, and to the west Tiaozhi. Its land, climate, products, possessions, and popular customs were the same as Wuyi and Jibin. It also used silver as money; the face alone showed the king's face, and the reverse the face of his wife. Whenever a king died, they recast the money. It had great horse-birds. Its dependent cities, large and small, numbered several hundred, and the land was several thousand li square; it was the greatest state. It bordered the Gui River. Merchants and traders travelled by cart and boat to neighboring states. They wrote on leather, with writing running horizontally.

Emperor Wu first sent envoys to Anxi. The king ordered a general with twenty thousand cavalry to welcome them at the eastern border. The eastern border was several thousand li from the royal capital. Travelling until they arrived, they passed several tens of cities, with people continuously settled. Anxi then sent envoys to follow the Han envoys and come observe Han territory, offering great bird eggs and conjurers from Liqian to Han. The Son of Heaven was greatly pleased. East of Anxi was the Great Yuezhi.

The state of the Great Yuezhi: it governed at Jianshi City. It was eleven thousand six hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. It had one hundred thousand households, four hundred thousand people, and one hundred thousand men able to bear arms. East to the Protector-General's seat was four thousand seven hundred forty li; west to Anxi was forty-nine days' travel; to the south it bordered Jibin. Its land, climate, products, possessions, popular customs, money, and goods were the same as Anxi. It produced one-humped camels.

The Great Yuezhi were originally a moving state, migrating in pursuit of their herds, with customs the same as the Xiongnu. They had more than a hundred thousand who drew the bow, and in former times they were strong and made light of the Xiongnu. They originally dwelt between Dunhuang and Qilian. When Maodun Chanyu attacked and broke the Yuezhi, and Laoshang Chanyu killed the Yuezhi king and made his head into a drinking vessel, the Yuezhi then went far away, passed beyond Dawan, struck Daxia in the west and made it subject, and established their royal court north of the Gui River. The remaining small groups that could not go away protected themselves among the Qiang of the Southern Mountains and were called the Lesser Yuezhi.

Daxia originally had no great ruler. Here and there, walled towns established lesser chiefs. The people were weak and feared war. Therefore, when the Yuezhi migrated there, they all made Daxia subject and took supplies jointly for the Han envoys. There were five xihou. The first was called the Xiumi xihou and governed at Hemo City, two thousand eight hundred forty-one li from the Protector-General and seven thousand eight hundred two li from Yang Pass. The second was called the Shuangmi xihou and governed at Shuangmi City, three thousand seven hundred forty-one li from the Protector-General and seven thousand seven hundred eighty-two li from Yang Pass. The third was called the Guishuang xihou and governed at Huzao City, five thousand nine hundred forty li from the Protector-General and seven thousand nine hundred eighty-two li from Yang Pass. The fourth was called the Xidun xihou and governed at Bomao City, five thousand nine hundred sixty-two li from the Protector-General and eight thousand two hundred two li from Yang Pass. The fifth was called the Gaofu xihou and governed at Gaofu City, six thousand forty-one li from the Protector-General and nine thousand two hundred eighty-three li from Yang Pass. All five xihou were subject to the Great Yuezhi.

Kangju, Dawan, and the Sai States

The state of Kangju: the king spent winter governing in the land of Leyueni, at Beitian City. It was twelve thousand three hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. To reach the land of Yueni was seven days by horse; to reach Fan'nei, where the king dwelt in summer, was nine thousand one hundred four li. It had one hundred twenty thousand households, six hundred thousand people, and one hundred twenty thousand men able to bear arms. East to the Protector-General's seat was five thousand five hundred fifty li. Its customs were the same as the Great Yuezhi. In the east it served the Xiongnu as a dependent.

In Emperor Xuan's time, when the Xiongnu were divided and in disorder and five chanyus were competing at once, Han supported and established Huhanye Chanyu. Zhizhi Chanyu resented this, killed the Han envoy, and blocked himself off in the west at Kangju. Later the Protector-General Gan Yanshou and the deputy commandant Chen Tang mobilized the Wuji commandants and the troops of the various states of the Western Regions, reached Kangju, and executed and destroyed Zhizhi Chanyu. The account is in the biographies of Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang. This year was the third year of Jianzhao under Emperor Yuan.

By the time of Emperor Cheng, Kangju sent a son to attend Han and presented tribute, yet because it considered itself utterly distant, it alone was arrogant and contemptuous and refused to rank itself with the other states. Protector-General Guo Shun repeatedly memorialized, saying: "Originally, when the Xiongnu were flourishing, it was not because they possessed Wusun and Kangju as well; and when they called themselves subjects and concubines, it was not because they had lost those two states. Although Han has received hostage sons from all three states, the three states send gifts to one another and communicate internally as before. They also scout one another and act when they see advantage. When joined, they cannot trust one another as intimates; when separated, they cannot make one another subjects or servants.

"Speaking of the present, linking and matching with Wusun has in the end brought no benefit and instead has created affairs for the Middle States. Yet Wusun was already linked before, and now with the Xiongnu both call themselves subjects; in righteousness it cannot be rejected. But Kangju is arrogant and crafty and to the end refuses to bow to envoys. When officials of the Protector-General reach its state, they are seated below the envoys of Wusun and the other states. The king and nobles eat and drink first, and only afterward give drink and food to the Protector-General's officials. They deliberately act as if they had no regard, in order to boast before neighboring states.

"Judging from this, why have they sent a son to attend? Their desire is for trade and markets, and their friendly language is deceit. The Xiongnu are the great state among the hundred Man, and now they serve Han with great completeness. If they hear that Kangju does not bow, it may cause the chanyu to have thoughts of lowering himself no further. We should return its attending son and cut off all further envoys, in order to make clear that the Han house does not communicate with a state without ritual.

"The small commanderies of Dunhuang and Jiuquan and the eight states of the southern road all suffer in supplying food, men, horses, donkeys, and camels for envoys coming and going. We vainly exhaust and consume the places through which they pass, sending and receiving an arrogant, crafty, utterly distant state. This is not the best plan." Because Han had only recently opened communication with Kangju and valued bringing distant people to itself, it continued to bind it loosely and did not cut it off.

Northwest of Kangju, perhaps two thousand li away, was the state of Yancai. Those who drew the bow were a great number, more than a hundred thousand. Its customs were the same as Kangju. It bordered a great marsh without banks; this was probably what is called the Northern Sea.

Kangju had five lesser kings. The first was called the King of Suchou and governed at Suchou City, five thousand seven hundred seventy-six li from the Protector-General and eight thousand twenty-five li from Yang Pass. The second was called the King of Fumo and governed at Fumo City, five thousand seven hundred sixty-seven li from the Protector-General and eight thousand twenty-five li from Yang Pass. The third was called the King of Yuni and governed at Yuni City, five thousand two hundred sixty-six li from the Protector-General and seven thousand five hundred twenty-five li from Yang Pass. The fourth was called the King of Ji and governed at Ji City, six thousand two hundred ninety-six li from the Protector-General and eight thousand five hundred fifty-five li from Yang Pass. The fifth was called the King of Aojian and governed at Aojian City, six thousand nine hundred six li from the Protector-General and eight thousand three hundred fifty-five li from Yang Pass. All five kings were subject to Kangju.

The state of Dawan: the king governed at Guishan City. It was twelve thousand two hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had sixty thousand households, three hundred thousand people, and sixty thousand men able to bear arms. It had one deputy king and one king who assisted the state. East to the Protector-General's seat was four thousand thirty-one li; north to Beitian City in Kangju was one thousand five hundred ten li; southwest to the Great Yuezhi was six hundred ninety li. To the north it bordered Kangju, and to the south the Great Yuezhi. Its land, climate, products, and popular customs were the same as the Great Yuezhi and Anxi. Around Dawan they made wine from grapes. Rich people stored wine to more than ten thousand shi, and old wine lasted several tens of years without spoiling. By custom they loved wine, and horses loved alfalfa.

Dawan had more than seventy other cities and many good horses. The horses sweated blood, and it was said that their ancestors were foals of heavenly horses.

Zhang Qian first spoke of them to Emperor Wu. The emperor sent envoys carrying a thousand jin of gold and a golden horse to request Dawan's good horses. The king of Dawan considered Han utterly distant and its great armies unable to arrive; he cherished his treasured horses and refused to give them. The Han envoys spoke recklessly, and Dawan then attacked and killed the Han envoys and took their goods and property.

Then the Son of Heaven sent the General of Ershi, Li Guangli, to lead troops, before and after more than a hundred thousand men, in a campaign against Dawan over four continuous years. The people of Dawan cut off the head of their king Wugua and offered three thousand horses, and only then did the Han army return. The account is in the biography of Zhang Qian. After Ershi had beheaded the king of Dawan, he separately established as king of Dawan a noble named Meicai, who had long treated Han well. More than a year later, the nobles of Dawan considered that Meicai had flattered Han and caused their state to suffer slaughter. Together with troops they killed Meicai, established Chanfeng, younger brother of Wugua, as king, and sent his son to attend Han as hostage. Han then sent envoys with bribes and gifts to pacify and reassure them. It also sent more than ten groups to reach the various states west of Dawan and seek their products, at the same time admonishing them with the awe shown in conquering Dawan. King Chanfeng of Dawan made an agreement with Han to present two heavenly horses each year. Han envoys collected grape and alfalfa seeds and returned with them. Because the Son of Heaven had many heavenly horses and many foreign envoys came, he planted even more grapes and alfalfa beside the detached palaces and guest lodges, as far as the eye could see.

From Dawan west to the state of Anxi, although their speech was somewhat different, in general it was similar and they understood one another. Their people all had deep-set eyes and many beards and whiskers. They were good at trade and markets and competed over fractions of weight. They valued women; what the women said, the men then decided as correct. Their lands had no silk or lacquer and they did not know how to cast iron vessels. After fugitive Han soldiers surrendered, they taught them casting and the making of other weapons. When they obtained Han yellow and white gold, they always made it into vessels and did not use it as currency.

From Wusun west to Anxi they were near the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu had once distressed the Yuezhi; therefore, when a Xiongnu envoy carrying one token of trust from the chanyu arrived in a state, that state passed him on and supplied food, not daring to detain or distress him. When Han envoys arrived, unless they brought money and goods they did not obtain food; unless they bought livestock they did not obtain mounts. The reason was that Han was far away and had many goods, so they had to trade in order to obtain what they wanted. After Huhanye Chanyu came to court at Han, they all honored Han.

The state of Taohuai: its king was eleven thousand eighty li from Chang'an. It had seven hundred households, five thousand people, and one thousand men able to bear arms.

The state of Xiuxun: the king governed at Niaofei Valley, west of the Congling. It was ten thousand two hundred ten li from Chang'an. It had three hundred fifty-eight households, one thousand thirty people, and four hundred eighty men able to bear arms. East to the Protector-General's seat was three thousand one hundred twenty-one li; to Yandun Valley in Juandu was two hundred sixty li; northwest to the state of Dawan was nine hundred twenty li; west to the Great Yuezhi was one thousand six hundred ten li. The people's customs and clothing were like Wusun. Following their herds in pursuit of water and grass, they were originally of Sai stock.

The state of Juandu: the king governed at Yandun Valley. It was nine thousand eight hundred sixty li from Chang'an. It had three hundred eighty households, eleven hundred people, and five hundred men able to bear arms. East to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand eight hundred sixty-one li. It reached Shule. Southward it was joined to the Congling, where there were no people. Going west up the Congling, one came to Xiuxun. Northwest to Dawan was one thousand thirty li, and to the north it bordered Wusun. Its clothing was like Wusun. It followed water and grass and relied on the Congling. It was originally of Sai stock.

The state of Shache: the king governed at Shache City. It was nine thousand nine hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had two thousand three hundred thirty-nine households, sixteen thousand three hundred seventy-three people, and three thousand forty-nine men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right cavalry lord, one lord prepared against Xiye, two commandants, and four chief interpreters. Northeast to the Protector-General's seat was four thousand seven hundred forty-six li; west to Shule five hundred sixty li; southwest to Puli seven hundred forty li. It had iron mountains and produced blue-green jade.

In Emperor Xuan's time, Wannian, the younger son of the Wusun princess, was loved by the king of Shache. The king of Shache died without sons; at the time of his death Wannian was in Han. The people of Shache planned to entrust themselves to Han and also wanted to obtain the goodwill of Wusun, so they submitted a letter requesting that Wannian be made king of Shache. Han agreed and sent the envoy Xi Chongguo to escort Wannian. When Wannian had just been established, he was violent and evil, and the people of the state were not pleased. Hutuzheng, younger brother of the king of Shache, killed Wannian, also killed the Han envoy, set himself up as king, and made agreements with the various states to turn against Han. It happened that Feng Fengshi, marquis of the guard, was serving as envoy escorting guests from Dawan. Acting according to what was convenient, he mobilized the troops of the various states, attacked and killed Hutuzheng, and separately established another son of the royal brothers as king of Shache. When he returned, Fengshi was appointed grandee of the Guanglu office. This year was the first year of Yuankang.

The state of Shule: the king governed at Shule City. It was nine thousand three hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had fifteen hundred ten households, eighteen thousand six hundred forty-seven people, and two thousand men able to bear arms. It had one marquis of Shule, one marquis who struck the Hu, one marquis who assisted the state, one commandant, one left and one right general, one left and one right cavalry lord, and one left and one right chief interpreter. East to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand two hundred ten li; south to Shache five hundred sixty li. It had market rows, and to the west it faced the roads to the Great Yuezhi, Dawan, and Kangju.

The state of Weitou: the king governed at Weitou Valley. It was eight thousand six hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had three hundred households, two thousand three hundred people, and eight hundred men able to bear arms. It had one left and one right commandant, and one left and one right cavalry lord. East to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand four hundred eleven li. To the south it bordered Shule, but the mountain road did not communicate. West to Juandu was one thousand three hundred fourteen li, and by the direct road it was two days by horse. It farmed and herded, following water and grass. Its clothing was like Wusun.

Wusun, Princesses, and the Han Alliance

The state of Wusun: the Great Kunmi governed at Chigu City. It was eight thousand nine hundred li from Chang'an. It had one hundred twenty thousand households, six hundred thirty thousand people, and one hundred eighty-eight thousand eight hundred men able to bear arms. It had a chancellor, a Dalu, two left and right great generals, three marquises, one great general, one commandant, two grand supervisors, one grand clerk, two grand clerks within the palace, and one cavalry lord. East to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand seven hundred twenty-one li. West to the Fan'nei lands of Kangju was five thousand li.

The land was broad and level. There was much rain, and it was cold. The mountains had many pines and man-trees. The people did not till fields, plant grain, or plant trees. They moved with their livestock, following water and grass, and their customs were the same as the Xiongnu. The state had many horses; rich men possessed as many as four or five thousand. The people were hard and fierce, greedy, violent, untrustworthy, and much given to raiding and theft. Wusun was the strongest state.

In earlier days it submitted to the Xiongnu. Later, when it had grown large and flourishing, it accepted only a loose bond of dependence and would not go to the court assemblies. To the east it touched the Xiongnu, to the northwest Kangju, to the west Dawan, and to the south the walled states. This had formerly been Sai land. The Great Yuezhi defeated and drove away the Sai king; the Sai king went south across Xuandu, and the Great Yuezhi occupied his land. Later the Wusun Kunmo struck and defeated the Great Yuezhi. The Great Yuezhi moved west and made Daxia their subject, while the Wusun Kunmo occupied the country. Therefore it is said that among the Wusun people there were Sai stock and Great Yuezhi stock.

At first Zhang Qian said that Wusun had originally been with the Great Yuezhi in the region of Dunhuang. Wusun was now strong and large, but if it could be summoned with heavy gifts, made to dwell eastward in its old land, married to a Han princess, and joined with Han as brothers, it could be used to control the Xiongnu. The account is in the biography of Zhang Qian. When Emperor Wu was on the throne, he ordered Qian to carry gold and silk and go there. The Kunmo received Qian according to the rites used for the chanyu. Qian was greatly ashamed and said to him: "The Son of Heaven has sent gifts. If the king does not bow, I shall take the gifts back." The Kunmo rose and bowed. In other matters he behaved as before.

In the beginning, the Kunmo had more than ten sons. Among them the middle son, Dalu, was strong and good at command. He led more than ten thousand cavalry and lived separately. Dalu's elder brother was the crown prince. The crown prince had a son named Cenzou. The crown prince died early and said to the Kunmo: "You must make Cenzou crown prince." The Kunmo grieved for him and agreed.

Dalu was angry. He gathered his brothers, led his troops in rebellion, and plotted to attack Cenzou. The Kunmo gave Cenzou more than ten thousand cavalry and had him live separately. The Kunmo also kept more than ten thousand cavalry of his own for defense. The state was divided into three parts, though the larger whole remained loosely attached to the Kunmo.

After Qian had delivered the gifts, he explained the imperial intention: "If Wusun can dwell eastward in its old land, Han will send a princess to be its lady, join with it as brothers, and together resist the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu will not be hard to break." Wusun was far from Han and did not know its size. It was also near the Xiongnu, to whom it had long been subject. All its great ministers were unwilling to move. The Kunmo was old, and the state was divided; he could not command alone. He therefore sent envoys to escort Qian back, and through them presented several tens of horses in thanks. The envoys saw that the Han people were numerous and rich. When they returned to their state, their state thereafter gave greater weight to Han.

When the Xiongnu heard that Wusun was communicating with Han, they were angry and wished to attack it. Han envoys to Wusun also went out through its southern side and reached Dawan and the Yuezhi, one mission following another without break. Wusun then became afraid. It sent envoys to present horses and asked to marry a Han princess and become brothers with Han. The Son of Heaven asked the assembled ministers. The deliberation allowed it, saying: "They must first bring in betrothal gifts, and only afterward may a daughter be sent." Wusun gave one thousand horses as betrothal gifts. During the Yuanfeng period, Han sent Xijun, daughter of Jian, king of Jiangdu, as a princess and gave her to Wusun in marriage. The court bestowed imperial carriages, clothing, and personal articles, prepared a full staff of officials, eunuchs, attendants, and several hundred serving people, and sent her off with very rich gifts. The Wusun Kunmo made her his right lady. The Xiongnu also sent a woman to marry the Kunmo, and the Kunmo made her his left lady.

When the princess arrived in that state, she had a palace residence made for herself and lived there. At seasonal times, once or twice a year, she met with the Kunmo. She set out wine and food and gave silk and other goods to the king's attendants and nobles. The Kunmo was old, and their languages did not communicate. The princess was sad and sorrowful, and made a song for herself:

My house has married me away, to one side of heaven; far away I am entrusted to a foreign state, to the Wusun king. The round tent is my chamber, felt is my wall. Meat is my food, fermented milk my drink. I live always thinking of my land; my heart is wounded within. I wish I were a yellow swan, returning to my old home.

When the Son of Heaven heard this, he pitied her. Every other year he sent envoys carrying curtains, tents, brocade, and embroidery to supply and present to her.

The Kunmo was old and wished to have his grandson Cenzou marry the princess. The princess would not consent and submitted a letter explaining the circumstances. The Son of Heaven replied: "Follow the customs of that state. We wish, together with Wusun, to destroy the Hu." Cenzou then married the princess. When the Kunmo died, Cenzou succeeded him. Cenzou was an official title; his name was Junxumi. Kunmo was a royal title; his name was Liejiaomi. Later writing says Kunmi.

Cenzou married the Jiangdu princess and had one daughter, Shaofu. When the princess died, Han again took Jieyou, granddaughter of Wu, king of Chu, made her a princess, and married her to Cenzou. Nimi, Cenzou's son by a Hu wife, was still young. When Cenzou was about to die, he gave the state to Wengguimi, son of Dalu, his younger uncle, saying: "When Nimi is grown, return the state to him."

After Wengguimi was established, he was titled the Fat King. He in turn married Princess Jieyou of Chu and had three sons and two daughters. The eldest son was Yuan Guimi. The next was Wannian, who became king of Shache. The next was Dale, who became left great general. The elder daughter, Dishi, was wife to Jiangbin, king of Qiuci. The younger daughter, Suguang, was wife to the Xihou of Ruohu.

In Emperor Zhao's time, the princess submitted a letter saying: "The Xiongnu have sent cavalry to garrison-farm at Cheshi. Cheshi and the Xiongnu have become one and together invade Wusun. May the Son of Heaven graciously save us!" Han maintained troops and horses and deliberated on striking the Xiongnu. It happened that Emperor Zhao died. At the beginning of Emperor Xuan's reign, the princess and the Kunmi both sent envoys submitting letters, saying: "The Xiongnu have again sent great armies one after another to invade and attack Wusun. They have taken the lands of Cheyan and Eshi, gathered up the people, and gone away. They sent envoys to tell Wusun to hurry and bring the princess to them, wishing to cut us off from Han. The Kunmi is willing to send half the picked troops of his state, supplying men and horses himself, fifty thousand cavalry, and do all in his power to attack the Xiongnu. May the Son of Heaven send out troops to save the princess and the Kunmi."

Han sent out a great force of one hundred fifty thousand cavalry. Five generals went out by separate roads at the same time. The account is in the Xiongnu tradition. Han sent the commandant Chang Hui as envoy, holding the staff of authority, to supervise the Wusun troops. The Kunmi personally led fifty thousand cavalry, from the Xihou downward, and entered from the west. They reached the court of the Right Guli King and captured men of the chanyu's father's generation, his sisters-in-law, juci princesses, titled kings, Liwu commandants, captains of thousands, cavalry generals, and those below them, making forty thousand heads. They took more than seven hundred thousand horses, cattle, sheep, donkeys, and camels. Wusun kept for itself everything it had captured. When Chang Hui returned, he was enfeoffed as Marquis of Changlu. This year was the third year of Benshi. Han sent Hui carrying gold and silk to bestow on Wusun nobles who had merit.

In the second year of Yuankang, the Wusun Kunmi submitted a letter through Hui: "I wish to make Yuan Guimi, the grandson born from Han, my successor. Let him again marry a Han princess, bind marriage, renew kinship, and cut himself off from the Xiongnu. I am willing to offer horses and mules, a thousand of each, as betrothal gifts." The edict sent the matter down to the dukes and ministers for deliberation. Grand Herald Xiao Wangzhi thought: "Wusun is in a distant region. Its changes and incidents are hard to guarantee. This must not be allowed."

The emperor admired Wusun because it had newly established great merit, and he was reluctant to cut off the old enterprise. He sent envoys to Wusun first to receive the betrothal gifts. The Kunmi, the crown prince, the left and right great generals, and the commandant all sent envoys, more than three hundred people in all, to enter Han and welcome the young princess. The emperor then took Xiangfu, niece of Princess Jieyou of Wusun, made her a princess, established more than a hundred officials and attendants for her, lodged them in Shanglin, and had them learn the Wusun language.

The Son of Heaven personally went to Pingle Lodge. He assembled Xiongnu envoys and the rulers and chiefs of foreign states for a great jiaodi spectacle, set out music, and sent her away. He made Hui, Marquis of Changlu and grandee of the Guanglu office, deputy envoy. There were four men in all holding staffs of authority, and they escorted the young princess to Dunhuang. Before they had gone out beyond the frontier, they heard that Wengguimi, Kunmi of Wusun, had died. The Wusun nobles followed the original agreement and established Nimi, son of Cenzou, to succeed as Kunmi. He was titled the Mad King.

Hui submitted a letter: "I request that the young princess be kept at Dunhuang while I gallop to Wusun, rebuke them for not establishing Yuan Guimi as Kunmi, and then return to escort the young princess." The matter was sent down to the dukes and ministers. Wangzhi again thought: "Wusun holds to both sides and is hard to bind by agreement. The former princess was in Wusun for more than forty years, yet favor and affection did not become close, and the frontier still did not obtain peace. This is proof from what has already happened. Now if the young princess returns because Yuan Guimi has not been established, good faith has not been broken with the barbarians. It is a blessing for the Middle States. If the young princess does not stop, corvee service and campaigns will arise, and their origin will be here." The Son of Heaven followed this and summoned the young princess back.

The Wusun Succession Crisis

The Mad King again married Princess Jieyou of Chu and had one son, Chimi. He was not in harmony with the princess, and he was also violent and evil and lost the people. Han sent Wei Heyi, marshal of the guard, and the deputy envoy Ren Chang to escort an attending son. The princess said that the Mad King was a misery to Wusun and would be easy to kill. They therefore plotted to set out wine and hold a gathering. When it ended, they had soldiers draw swords and strike him. The sword came down aside from its mark. The Mad King was wounded, mounted a horse, and galloped away.

His son Xichenshou assembled troops and surrounded Heyi, Chang, and the princess at Chigu City. After several months, Protector-General Zheng Ji mobilized troops from the various states to save them, and only then did the siege withdraw. Han sent the palace gentleman-general Zhang Zun with medicines to treat the Mad King, and bestowed twenty jin of gold and colored silks. At the same time it arrested Heyi and Chang, chained and shackled them, carried them from Yuli to Chang'an in a prison cart, and beheaded them.

Zhang Wengliu, chief clerk to the General of Chariots and Cavalry, stayed behind to examine the facts of the princess and the envoys plotting to kill the Mad King. The princess would not admit guilt. She kowtowed and apologized, but Zhang Wengliu seized her by the head and cursed her. The princess submitted a letter. When Wengliu returned, he was convicted and put to death. The deputy envoy Jidu separately led the doctors who treated and cared for the Mad King. The Mad King sent him off with more than ten riders. When Jidu returned, he was convicted because he knew that the Mad King ought to be killed but did not act when he saw the opportunity; he was sent down to the silkworm chamber.

At first, Wujiutu, son of the Fat King Wengguimi by a Hu wife, was frightened when the Mad King was wounded. He left together with the various Xihou and dwelt in the northern mountains, announcing that troops were coming from the Xiongnu, his mother's people. Therefore the masses went over to him. Later he attacked and killed the Mad King and set himself up as Kunmi. Han sent Xin Wuxian, General Who Breaks the Qiang, to lead fifteen thousand troops to Dunhuang. It sent envoys to inspect the frontier, dig west of Beidihou Well, open canals for transporting grain, and accumulate stores at the Julu granary in order to campaign against him.

In the beginning, Feng Liao, an attendant of the Chu princess, was able to write documents and was practiced in affairs. She had once held a Han staff of authority as the princess's envoy, traveling and giving rewards among the walled states, and they respected and trusted her. She was called Madam Feng. She was wife to the Wusun right great general. The right great general and Wujiutu were fond of one another. Protector-General Zheng Ji sent Madam Feng to persuade Wujiutu, saying that Han troops were just setting out and that he would certainly be destroyed; it would be better to surrender. Wujiutu was afraid and said: "I wish to receive the lesser title."

Emperor Xuan summoned Madam Feng and personally asked her about the situation. He sent the palace attendant Zhu Ci and the Qimen guard Gan Yanshou as deputies to escort Madam Feng. Madam Feng rode in a brocade carriage and held the staff of authority. The edict commanded Wujiutu to go to Marquis Changlu at Chigu City. Yuan Guimi was established as Great Kunmi, and Wujiutu as Lesser Kunmi. Both were bestowed seals and cords. The General Who Breaks the Qiang returned without going out beyond the frontier.

Afterward, Wujiutu did not return all the people of the various Xihou. Han again sent Hui, Marquis of Changlu, to lead three command garrisons at Chigu, and through him divided their people and boundary lands. The Great Kunmi had more than sixty thousand households, and the Lesser Kunmi more than forty thousand households; yet the hearts of the masses were all attached to the Lesser Kunmi.

Yuan Guimi and Chimi both died of illness. The princess submitted a letter saying that she was old and thought of her native soil, and that she wished to return her bones and be buried in Han land. The Son of Heaven pitied her and had her brought back. The princess, together with three Wusun sons and daughters, came to the capital. This year was the third year of Ganlu. She was then almost seventy. She was given a princess's fields, residence, slaves, and maidservants, and was supported very richly. The ritual for her court audiences matched that of a princess. Two years later she died. Her three grandchildren therefore remained to watch over her tomb.

Xingmi, son of Yuan Guimi, succeeded as Great Kunmi. He was weak. Madam Feng submitted a letter, asking to be sent to Wusun to settle and pacify Xingmi. Han sent her, and one hundred soldiers escorted her to Wusun. Protector-General Han Xuan memorialized that the Wusun grand clerk, Dalu, and grand supervisor could all be given gold seals and purple cords, in order to honor them as assistants to the Great Kunmi. Han allowed it. Later Protector-General Han Xuan again memorialized that Xingmi was timid and weak and could be removed, and that his younger uncle Dale, the left great general, could be made Kunmi in his place. Han did not allow it. Later, when Duan Huizong became Protector-General, he summoned back fugitives and rebels and brought stability to Wusun.

When Xingmi died, his son Cilimi succeeded him. When the Lesser Kunmi Wujiutu died, his son Fuli succeeded, but was killed by his younger brother Rier. Han sent an envoy to establish Fuli's son Anri as Lesser Kunmi. Rier fled and sheltered behind Kangju. Han moved the Ji command garrison to Gumo, intending to wait for an opportunity to attack him. Anri sent three nobles, including Gumoni, to pretend to flee and join Rier. They assassinated him. Protector-General Lian Bao bestowed on Gumoni and the others gold figures weighing twenty jin and three hundred bolts of silk.

Later Anri was killed by surrendered people, and Han established his younger brother Mozhenjiang to succeed him. At that time the Great Kunmi Cilimi was strong and healthy, and all the Xihou feared and obeyed him. He warned the people who pastured horses and livestock not to let them enter his grazing lands. The state was greatly peaceful, as it had been in Wengguimi's time. The Lesser Kunmi Mozhenjiang feared that he would be annexed. He sent the noble Wuriling to feign surrender and assassinate Cilimi.

Han wished to campaign against him but could not. It sent the palace gentleman-general Duan Huizong to carry gold and silk and plan strategy with the Protector-General. They established Yizhimi, Cilimi's younger uncle and the princess's grandson, as Great Kunmi. Han confiscated the attending sons of the Lesser Kunmi who were in the capital. After a long time, Nanqi, a Xihou of the Great Kunmi, killed Mozhenjiang. Anliyou, son of Anri, the elder brother of Mozhenjiang, succeeded as Lesser Kunmi. Han resented that it had not itself rebuked and executed Mozhenjiang. It again sent Duan Huizong to go and behead his crown prince Fanqiu. When Huizong returned, he was given the noble rank of Marquis within the Passes. This year was the second year of Yuanyan.

Because the Xihou Nanqi had killed Mozhenjiang, Duan Huizong considered that, although Nanqi had not expressly acted for Han, the deed accorded with the punishment of a traitor. He memorialized that Nanqi be made commandant of firm defense. The Dalu, grand clerk, and grand supervisor were blamed for the circumstances in which Cilimi had been killed; their gold seals and purple cords were taken away and replaced with copper seals and black cords. Beiyuanzhi, younger brother of Mozhenjiang, had originally joined the plot to kill the Great Kunmi. He led more than eighty thousand people north and attached himself to Kangju, planning to borrow troops and annex both Kunmi. Both Kunmi feared him and leaned closely on the Protector-General.

In the second year of Yuanshou under Emperor Ai, the Great Kunmi Yizhimi and the chanyu entered court together, and Han considered it an honor. In the Yuanshi period, Beiyuanzhi killed Wuriling to show his service. Han enfeoffed him as Marquis Returning to Righteousness. Both Kunmi were weak; Beiyuanzhi encroached on them and bullied them. Protector-General Sun Jian made a surprise attack and killed him. From the time Wusun was divided and two Kunmi were established, Han was burdened with worry and labor, and for a long while had no peaceful year.

Northern Oasis States and the Luntai Edict

The state of Gumo: the king governed at Nancheng. It was eight thousand one hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had three thousand five hundred households, twenty-four thousand five hundred people, and four thousand five hundred men able to bear arms. It had one marquis of Gumo, one marquis who assisted the state, one commandant, one left and one right general, one left and one right cavalry lord, and two chief interpreters. East to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand twenty-one li. South to Yutian was fifteen days by horse. To the north it bordered Wusun. It produced copper, iron, and orpiment. Eastward it communicated with Qiuci, six hundred seventy li away. In Wang Mang's time, Cheng, king of Gumo, killed the king of Wensu and annexed his state.

The state of Wensu: the king governed at Wensu City. It was eight thousand three hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had two thousand two hundred households, eight thousand four hundred people, and fifteen hundred men able to bear arms. It had two each of the marquises who assisted the state, left and right generals, left and right commandants, left and right cavalry lords, and chief interpreters. East to the Protector-General's seat was two thousand three hundred eighty li; west to Weitou three hundred li; north to Wusun's Chigu was six hundred ten li. Its land, products, and things possessed were the same as those of Shanshan and the other states. Eastward it communicated with Gumo, two hundred seventy li away.

The state of Qiuci: the king governed at Yancheng. It was seven thousand four hundred eighty li from Chang'an. It had six thousand nine hundred seventy households, eighty-one thousand three hundred seventeen people, and twenty-one thousand seventy-six men able to bear arms. It had one deputy to the grand commandant, one marquis who assisted the state, one marquis who pacified the state, one marquis who struck the Hu, one commandant who repelled the Hu, one commandant who struck Cheshi, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one left and one right cavalry lord, one left and one right lord who forcefully assisted, two chiefs of a thousand for each of the eastern, western, southern, and northern divisions, three lords who repelled the Hu, and four chief interpreters. To the south it bordered Jingjue, to the southeast Qiemo, to the southwest Yumi, to the north Wusun, and to the west Gumo. It was able to cast and smelt, and had lead. East to Wulei City, the Protector-General's seat, was three hundred fifty li.

Wulei had one hundred ten households, twelve hundred people, and three hundred men able to bear arms. It had one city commandant and one chief interpreter. It was governed together with the Protector-General. Three hundred thirty li to its south was Quli.

Quli had one city commandant, one hundred thirty households, one thousand four hundred eighty people, and one hundred fifty men able to bear arms. To the northeast it bordered Yuli, to the southeast Qiemo, and to the south Jingjue. To the west there was a river. To Qiuci was five hundred eighty li.

From the time Emperor Wu first opened communication with the Western Regions, commandants were established and garrison-farming was carried out at Quli. At that time military expeditions went out in succession. Armies were on the road for thirty-two years, and within the seas the realm was emptied and exhausted. During the Zhenghe period, the General of Ershi, Li Guangli, surrendered to the Xiongnu with his army. The emperor had already regretted distant campaigns and attacks, but the grain-searching commandant Sang Hongyang, together with the chancellor and the censor, memorialized:

"Former Luntai, Jiezhi, and Quli eastward are all old states. The land is broad and rich in water and grass. It has more than five thousand qing of irrigated fields. The place is mild and warm, the fields are good, and canals can be further opened. The five grains can be planted and will ripen at the same time as in the Middle States. The neighboring states have few awls and knives and value gold and colored silks; these can be exchanged for grain and food. They ought to be supplied fully and must not be allowed to lack.

"In our foolish opinion, garrison-farm soldiers may be sent to former Luntai and the lands east of it. Three commandants should be established to protect them in divisions. Each should raise maps of the terrain, open and improve canals, and make it their work to increase the timely sowing of the five grains. Zhangye and Jiuquan should send cavalrymen acting as temporary sima to serve as scouts under the commandants. When affairs present advantage, reports may be sent by mounted relay. After one year of farming, with grain accumulated, strong and healthy commoners who have family burdens and dare to move may be recruited to go to the farming sites. There they may take livestock and stores as their occupation, further open irrigated fields, and gradually build a line of stations, joining cities westward, in order to awe the western states and support Wusun. This would be advantageous.

"Your servants have respectfully sent Chang, an investigating official, to divide the districts and travel along the frontier. We have strictly ordered the commandery governors and commandants to make the beacon fires clear, select soldiers and horses, carefully maintain scouts, and store fodder and grass. We hope Your Majesty will send envoys to the western states in order to settle their minds. Your foolish servants risk death to request this."

The emperor then issued an edict, deeply setting forth his regret over what had already happened:

"Earlier, officials memorialized that they wished to increase the people's levy by thirty in order to help frontier expenses. This would doubly distress the old, the weak, the orphaned, and the solitary. Now they again request that soldiers be sent to farm Luntai. Luntai lies more than a thousand li west of Cheshi. Formerly, when the Marquis of Kailing attacked Cheshi, the sons and younger brothers of six states, including Weixu, Yuli, and Loulan, who were in the capital, all returned first. They sent livestock and food to meet the Han army, and also themselves sent troops, several tens of thousands in all, each king leading his own men. Together they surrounded Cheshi and surrendered its king. The troops of the various states then stopped. Their strength could not again reach the road to feed the Han army.

"The Han army broke the city and had very much food. Yet the soldiers' own loads were not enough to complete the campaign. The strong ate up all the livestock; the weak died on the road by the thousands. I sent donkeys and camels from Jiuquan, carrying food, out through Yumen to meet the army. Officials and soldiers starting from Zhangye were not very far away, yet many were still delayed and left behind.

"Earlier, because I was not clear-sighted, I took the memorial of Hong, the army scout, which said: 'The Xiongnu tied the front and hind feet of horses, set them below the city, and galloped about shouting, "Qin men, I will give you horses."' Also, Han envoys had long been detained and had not returned. Therefore I raised and sent the General of Ershi, wishing to make the authority of envoys weighty.

"In ancient times, when ministers and grandees planned together, they consulted milfoil and turtle shell; if it was not auspicious, they did not act. At that time the letter about the bound horses was shown everywhere to the chancellor, the censor, officials of two-thousand-shi rank, the various grandees, palace gentlemen who were men of letters, and even Cheng Zhong, commandant of the commandery dependent state, Zhao Ponu, and others. All said: 'The captives have bound their own horses. This is deeply inauspicious for them.' Some thought: 'They wish to show strength, but one who lacks something displays surplus to others.' The change was cast in the Changes and the hexagram Great Exceeding was obtained, with the line at the fifth nine: the Xiongnu were troubled and defeated. The public-carriage fangshi, the grand historian who managed the stars and watched the vapors, and the grand diviners with turtle shell and milfoil all considered it auspicious. The Xiongnu would surely be broken; the moment could not be obtained again. They also said: 'If the northern expedition sends a general, at Fushan he will surely prevail.' The lots were cast for the various generals, and Ershi was most auspicious. Therefore I personally sent Ershi down to Fushan and instructed him not to go in too deeply. Now the plans, counsels, divinations, and omens have all turned out perverse and wrong.

"The Marquis of Chonghe and the Marquis of Wulu said: 'We have heard that when the Han army was about to come, the Xiongnu had shamans bury sheep and cattle on all the roads by which the army would emerge and beside the waters, in order to curse the army. When the chanyu sent the Son of Heaven a horse and a fur robe, he always had shamans pray over them. The bound horses were a matter of cursing the army.' They also divined: 'One Han general is inauspicious.' The Xiongnu are accustomed to say: 'Han is extremely large, but it cannot endure hunger and thirst. Lose one wolf, and a thousand sheep run.' Recently Ershi was defeated. Soldiers died, were taken, and scattered. Grief and pain are always in my heart.

"Now the request to farm distant Luntai and raise stations and watchtowers would disturb and labor the empire. This is not the way to be generous to the people. Now I cannot bear to hear it. The Grand Herald and others have also deliberated that convicts should be recruited to send the Xiongnu envoys back, and that the reward of enfeoffment as marquis should be made clear in order to answer anger. This is something even the Five Hegemons could not do.

"Moreover, when the Xiongnu obtain Han men who have surrendered, they always draw them close and search them out, asking what they have heard. At present the frontier barriers are not yet properly ordered, and unauthorized exits are not prohibited. Senior officials at the barriers and scouts make soldiers hunt animals and take profit from hides and meat. The soldiers suffer, the beacon fires are deficient, and losses are not gathered and reported upward. Only after later surrenderers come, or if living captives are taken, do we know of it.

"What matters now is to prohibit harshness and violence, stop unauthorized levies, strengthen root agriculture, and repair the horse-restoration ordinances, in order to make good the deficiencies. It is only necessary that military preparations not be lacking. The two-thousand-shi officials of the commanderies and kingdoms shall each submit strategies for increasing livestock and horses and statements on supplementing the frontier, together with their annual accounts."

From this point no more armies were sent out. The chancellor Che Qianqiu was enfeoffed as Marquis Who Enriches the People, in order to make clear rest and recuperation and the intention to enrich and nourish the people.

Earlier, when the General of Ershi, Li Guangli, attacked Dawan and returned through Yumi, Yumi sent its crown prince Laidan as a hostage to Qiuci. Guangli rebuked Qiuci, saying: "The foreign states are all subjects of Han. How can Qiuci receive a Yumi hostage?" He immediately brought Laidan into the capital. Emperor Zhao then used Sang Hongyang's earlier proposal and made Laidan, crown prince of Yumi, commandant-general to farm Luntai, since the lands of Luntai and Quli were joined to one another. A noble of Qiuci named Guyi said to his king: "Laidan was originally subject to our state. Now he wears a Han seal and cord and comes to farm pressing against our state. He will certainly be a danger." The king thereupon killed Laidan and submitted a letter apologizing to Han. Han was not yet able to punish him.

Qiuci and the Northern Small States

In Emperor Xuan's time, Chang Hui, Marquis of Changlu, returned from an embassy to Wusun. Acting according to what was convenient, he mobilized the troops of the various states, joining fifty thousand men to attack Qiuci, and charged it with having previously killed the commandant Laidan. The king of Qiuci apologized, saying: "This happened in the time of my former king, who was misled by the noble Guyi. I am without guilt." He seized Guyi and brought him to Hui, and Hui beheaded him.

At that time the Wusun princess sent her daughter to the capital to study the drum and zither. Han sent the attendant gentleman Yue Feng to escort the princess's daughter home. They passed through Qiuci. Qiuci had previously sent someone to Wusun to ask for the princess's daughter, but he had not yet returned. When the daughter happened to pass through Qiuci, the king of Qiuci detained her and would not send her on. He again sent an envoy to report this to the princess, and the princess allowed it.

Later the princess submitted a letter, wishing that her daughter be permitted to enter court on the same footing as the imperial clan. Jiangbin, king of Qiuci, also loved his lady and submitted a letter saying that, since he had married the granddaughter of Han and become Han's brother, he wished to enter court together with the princess's daughter. In the first year of Yuankang, they then came to court and offered congratulations. The king and his lady were both bestowed seals and cords. His lady was given the style and title of princess. She was bestowed carriages, cavalry, banners, drums, several tens of singers and wind musicians, patterned silks, embroidered and mixed silks, curiosities, and treasures worth several tens of millions in all. They remained almost a year and were sent away with rich parting gifts.

Afterward they came several times to court and to offer congratulations. Jiangbin delighted in Han clothing and institutions. When he returned to his state, he built palace chambers, made patrolways and surrounding guards, and when he went in or out had announcements passed along and bells and drums struck, all according to Han household ritual. The foreign Hu all said: "A donkey that is not a donkey, a horse that is not a horse: the king of Qiuci is what is called a mule." When Jiangbin died, his son Chengde called himself Han's grandson. In the time of Emperors Cheng and Ai he came and went especially often, and Han treated him with great closeness.

Eastward Qiuci communicated with Yuli, six hundred fifty li away.

The state of Yuli: the king governed at Yuli City. It was six thousand seven hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had twelve hundred households, nine thousand six hundred people, and two thousand men able to bear arms. It had one marquis of Yuli, one marquis who pacified the age, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one lord who struck the Hu, and two chief interpreters. West to the Protector-General's seat was three hundred li. To the south it bordered Shanshan and Qiemo.

The state of Weixu: the king governed at Weixu City. It was seven thousand two hundred ninety li from Chang'an. It had seven hundred households, four thousand nine hundred people, and two thousand men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who struck the Hu, one commandant who struck the Hu, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one left and one right cavalry lord, one lord who struck the Hu, and one chief interpreter. West to the Protector-General's seat was five hundred li. To Yanqi was one hundred li.

The state of Yanqi: the king governed at Yuanqu City. It was seven thousand three hundred li from Chang'an. It had four thousand households, thirty-two thousand one hundred people, and six thousand men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who struck the Hu, one marquis who repelled the Hu, one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one left and one right lord who struck the Hu, one lord who struck Cheshi, and one lord of Cheshi returning to righteousness; it had two each of commandants who struck the Hu and lords who struck the Hu, and three chief interpreters. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was four hundred li. South to Yuli was one hundred li. To the north it bordered Wusun. It was near sea water and had many fish.

The state of Wutanzili: the king governed at Yulou Valley. It was ten thousand three hundred thirty li from Chang'an. It had forty-one households, two hundred thirty-one people, and fifty-seven men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state and one left and one right commandant. To the east it bordered Shanhuan, to the south Qiemi, and to the west Wusun.

The state of Beilu: the king governed at the state of Gandang east of the Tianshan. It was eight thousand six hundred eighty li from Chang'an. It had two hundred twenty-seven households, one thousand three hundred eighty-seven people, and four hundred twenty-two men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, and one left and one right chief interpreter. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand two hundred eighty-seven li.

The Later Beilu state: the king governed at Fanqulei Valley. It was eight thousand seven hundred ten li from Chang'an. It had four hundred sixty-two households, one thousand one hundred thirty-seven people, and three hundred fifty men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one commandant, one chief interpreter, and two generals. To the east it bordered Yulishi, to the north the Xiongnu, to the west Jie, and to the south Cheshi.

The state of Yulishi: the king governed at Neiduo Valley. It was eight thousand eight hundred thirty li from Chang'an. It had one hundred ninety households, one thousand four hundred forty-five people, and three hundred thirty-one men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right commandant, and one chief interpreter. To the east it bordered the commandant of the Later City of Cheshi, to the west Beilu, and to the north the Xiongnu.

The state of Shanhuan: the king governed at Shanhuan City. It was eight thousand eight hundred seventy li from Chang'an. It had twenty-seven households, one hundred ninety-four people, and forty-five men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one general, one left and one right commandant, and one chief interpreter.

The state of Pulei: the king governed at Shuyu Valley west of the Tianshan. It was eight thousand three hundred sixty li from Chang'an. It had three hundred twenty-five households, two thousand thirty-two people, and seven hundred ninety-nine men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, and one left and one right commandant. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand three hundred eighty-seven li.

The Later Pulei state: the king was eight thousand six hundred thirty li from Chang'an. It had one hundred households, one thousand seventy people, and three hundred thirty-four men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one general, one left and one right commandant, and one chief interpreter.

The state of Western Qiemi: the king governed at Yuda Valley east of the Tianshan. It was eight thousand six hundred seventy li from Chang'an. It had three hundred thirty-two households, one thousand nine hundred twenty-six people, and seven hundred thirty-eight men able to bear arms. It had one marquis of Western Qiemi, one left and one right general, and one left and one right cavalry lord. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand four hundred eighty-seven li.

The state of Eastern Qiemi: the king governed at Duixu Valley east of the Tianshan. It was eight thousand two hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had one hundred ninety-one households, one thousand nine hundred forty-eight people, and five hundred seventy-two men able to bear arms. It had one marquis of Eastern Qiemi and one left and one right commandant. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand five hundred eighty-seven li.

The state of Jie: the king governed at Danqu Valley east of the Tianshan. It was eight thousand five hundred seventy li from Chang'an. It had ninety-nine households, five hundred people, and one hundred fifteen men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one commandant, and one chief interpreter. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand four hundred eighty-seven li.

The state of Huhu: the king governed at Liu Valley in Cheshi. It was eight thousand two hundred li from Chang'an. It had fifty-five households, two hundred sixty-four people, and forty-five men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state and one left and one right commandant. West to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand one hundred forty-seven li. To Yanqi was seven hundred seventy li.

The Mountain State: its king was seven thousand one hundred seventy li from Chang'an. It had four hundred fifty households, five thousand people, and one thousand men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, and one chief interpreter. West to Yuli was two hundred forty li; northwest to Yanqi one hundred sixty li; west to Weixu two hundred sixty li. To the southeast it bordered Shanshan and Qiemo. The mountains produced iron. The people dwelt in the mountains and held tenant fields and bought grain in Yanqi and Weixu.

Cheshi, Collapse, and Ban Gu's Judgment

The Former Cheshi state: the king governed at Jiaohe City. The river water divided and flowed around the foot of the city; therefore it was called Jiaohe, "Joined Rivers." It was eight thousand one hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had seven hundred households, six thousand fifty people, and one thousand eight hundred sixty-five men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who assisted the state, one marquis who pacified the state, one left and one right general, one commandant, one commandant returning to Han, one lord of Cheshi, one lord communicating goodness, one lord turning toward goodness, and two chief interpreters. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand eight hundred seven li. To Yanqi was eight hundred thirty-five li.

The state of the Later King of Cheshi governed at Wutu Valley. It was eight thousand nine hundred fifty li from Chang'an. It had five hundred ninety-five households, four thousand seven hundred seventy-four people, and one thousand eight hundred ninety men able to bear arms. It had one marquis who struck the Hu, one left and one right general, one left and one right commandant, one lord who guided the people, and one chief interpreter. Southwest to the Protector-General's seat was one thousand two hundred thirty-seven li.

The state of the Cheshi Commandant had forty households, three hundred thirty-three people, and eighty-four men able to bear arms.

The state of the chief of the Later City of Cheshi had one hundred fifty-four households, nine hundred sixty people, and two hundred sixty men able to bear arms.

In the second year of Tianhan under Emperor Wu, the surrendered Xiongnu Jiehe King was made Marquis of Kailing. He led troops of Loulan and first attacked Cheshi. The Xiongnu sent the Right Worthy King to lead several tens of thousands of cavalry to save it. The Han troops were unsuccessful and withdrew. In the fourth year of Zhenghe, Han sent Ma Tong, Marquis of Chonghe, to lead forty thousand cavalry to attack the Xiongnu. His road passed north of Cheshi. Han again sent the Marquis of Kailing to lead troops of Loulan, Yuli, Weixu, and six states in all to attack Cheshi separately, so that it could not block the Marquis of Chonghe. The troops of the various states together surrounded Cheshi. The king of Cheshi surrendered and submitted, becoming subject to Han.

In Emperor Zhao's time, the Xiongnu again sent four thousand cavalry to farm at Cheshi. When Emperor Xuan came to the throne, he sent five generals leading troops to attack the Xiongnu. Those farming at Cheshi were frightened and left, and Cheshi again communicated with Han. The Xiongnu were angry. They summoned Junsu, its crown prince, wishing to make him a hostage. Junsu was a grandson through Yanqi and did not wish to be hostage to the Xiongnu, so he fled to Yanqi. The king of Cheshi then established another son, Wugui, as crown prince. When Wugui was established as king, he made a marriage alliance with the Xiongnu and taught the Xiongnu how to block the Han road communicating with Wusun.

In the second year of Dijie, Han sent the attendant gentleman Zheng Ji and the commandant Sima Xi to lead pardoned criminals to farm at Quli and accumulate grain, intending to attack Cheshi. When the grain was harvested in autumn, Ji and Xi mobilized more than ten thousand troops from the walled states. Together with the fifteen hundred farming soldiers whom they themselves commanded, they attacked Cheshi, assaulted Jiaohe City, and broke it. The king was still in Stone City to the north and had not been taken. When the army's food ran out, Ji and the others for the moment called off the troops and returned to farm at Quli.

When the autumn harvest was finished, they again mobilized troops and attacked the king of Cheshi at Stone City. The king heard that the Han troops were about to arrive, fled north to the Xiongnu, and asked for help, but the Xiongnu did not send troops for him. The king came back and discussed surrendering to Han with the noble Suyou, but feared that he would not be trusted. Suyou taught the king to attack Xiaopulei, a small border state of the Xiongnu, cut off heads, seize its people, and surrender to Zheng Ji with these. A small state beside Cheshi, Jinfu, followed behind the Han army and plundered Cheshi. The king of Cheshi again requested permission to attack and defeat Jinfu himself.

When the Xiongnu heard that Cheshi had surrendered to Han, they sent troops to attack Cheshi. Ji and Xi led troops north and met them, and the Xiongnu did not dare advance. Ji and Xi then left one scout officer and twenty soldiers behind to guard the king, while Ji and the others led the troops back to Quli. The king of Cheshi feared that the Xiongnu troops would come again and that he would be killed, and so with light cavalry he fled to Wusun. Ji immediately received his wife and children and placed them at Quli. He went east to report the affair. When he reached Jiuquan, there was an edict ordering him to return to farming at Quli and Cheshi, increase the accumulated grain, settle the western states, and press upon the Xiongnu.

Ji returned and transmitted the wife and children of the king of Cheshi to Chang'an. They were given very rich rewards. Whenever the four Yi came to court meetings, Han always honored and displayed them prominently. Thereupon Ji first sent three hundred officials and soldiers to farm separately at Cheshi. Those who had surrendered reported that the chanyu and his great ministers all said: "The land of Cheshi is fertile and beautiful and lies near the Xiongnu. If Han obtains it, farms it widely, and accumulates grain, it will certainly harm our state. We cannot fail to fight for it." As expected, they sent cavalry to attack the farmers. Ji then, together with the commandant, led all fifteen hundred farming soldiers of Quli to go there and farm. The Xiongnu again sent additional cavalry. The Han farming soldiers were few and could not resist them, so they secured themselves inside Cheshi City. The Xiongnu general came below the city and said to Ji: "The chanyu will certainly fight for this land. It cannot be farmed." He surrounded the city for several days and then lifted the siege.

Afterward several thousand cavalry constantly came and went guarding Cheshi. Ji submitted a letter, saying: "Cheshi is more than a thousand li from Quli, separated from it by rivers and mountains. To the north it is near the Xiongnu. The Han troops at Quli cannot, in the present situation, save one another. I request additional farming soldiers." The dukes and ministers deliberated and thought that the road was distant and the expense burdensome; for the moment the Cheshi farmers could be withdrawn. The edict sent the Marquis of Changlu to lead cavalry from Zhangye and Jiuquan out more than a thousand li north of Cheshi, displaying military awe beside Cheshi. The Hu cavalry withdrew. Ji was then able to get out and return to Quli. There were three commandants garrison-farming in all.

When the king of Cheshi fled to Wusun, Wusun kept him and would not send him on. It sent an envoy submitting a letter, wishing to keep the king of Cheshi so that, if there were an emergency in the state, he could attack the Xiongnu from the western road. Han allowed it. Thereupon Han summoned Junsu, the former Cheshi crown prince who was in Yanqi, and established him as king. It moved all the people of Cheshi and made them dwell at Quli, thereby leaving the old land of Cheshi to the Xiongnu. The king of Cheshi was able to be near the Han farming officials, cut himself off from the Xiongnu, and was also peaceful, happy, and close to Han. Later Han sent the attendant gentleman Yin Guangde to rebuke Wusun and demand Wusungui, king of Cheshi. He brought him to the imperial gate, and a residence was bestowed where he lived with his wife and children. This year was the fourth year of Yuankang. After this, the Wuji commandants were established to garrison-farm and dwell in the old land of Cheshi.

In the Yuanshi period, there was a new road in the state of the Later King of Cheshi. It went out north through Wuchuan and communicated with Yumen Pass. Travel by it was rather nearer. Xu Pu, the Wuji commandant, wished to open it in order to reduce the road distance by half and avoid the hardship of the Bailongdui. Guju, the Later King of Cheshi, felt uneasy because the road would make his country serve as a relay station. The land also partly bordered the territory of the Xiongnu's southern general. Pu wished to divide and clarify the boundary and afterward memorialize it. He summoned Guju and had him verify it, but Guju refused, and Pu imprisoned him. Guju repeatedly bribed officials with cattle and sheep, seeking release, but could not obtain it.

Fire appeared at the point of a spear in Guju's house. His wife Guzizou said to him: "Fire appearing at the spear point is the vapor of war. It is advantageous for using troops. Earlier the Former King of Cheshi was killed by the Protector-General's sima. Now if you remain imprisoned for long, you will certainly die. It would be better to surrender to the Xiongnu." He at once galloped out through the Gaochang wall and entered the Xiongnu.

Again, Tangdou, King Who Leaves the Hu and Comes to Han, had a state adjoining the great Chishui Qiang tribe. They repeatedly raided one another. Tangdou could not prevail and reported his emergency to the Protector-General. The Protector-General Dan Qin did not rescue and aid him in time. Tangdou was hard pressed, resented Qin, and went east to Yumen Pass. Yumen Pass would not admit him, so he led his wife, children, and people, more than a thousand persons, away and surrendered to the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu received him and sent an envoy submitting a letter describing the matter. At this time Wang Mang, Marquis of Xindu, held power. He sent the palace gentleman-general Wang Chang and others as envoys to the Xiongnu, telling the chanyu that the Western Regions belonged internally to Han and that he ought not receive them. The chanyu apologized, seized the two kings, and handed them over to the envoys. Mang ordered the palace gentleman Wang Meng to wait at the border of Edunu in the Western Regions to meet and receive them. The chanyu sent envoys to deliver them and through them requested a ruling on their guilt. The envoy reported this, but Mang did not listen. He issued an edict to assemble the kings of the various Western Regions states, arrayed troops, and beheaded Guju and Tangdou as a display to them.

When Mang usurped the throne, in the second year of Jianguo he made Zhen Feng, Duke of Guangxin, Right Bo; he was to go out to the Western Regions. Xuzhili, the Later King of Cheshi, heard of this and plotted with his right general Gudi and left general Shinizhi, saying: "We hear that Duke Zhen is to be Grand Bo of the Western Regions and is about to go out. According to old practice, cattle, sheep, grain, fodder, guides, and interpreters are supplied to envoys. When the Five Awe Generals passed through before, what we supplied for their mission could not yet be fully prepared. Now the Grand Bo is going out again. The state will become still poorer, and I fear we cannot meet the demand." He wished to flee into the Xiongnu. The Wuji commandant Dao Hu heard this, summoned Xuzhili, examined and questioned him, and he confessed. Dao Hu then put him in shackles and sent him to the Protector-General Dan Qin at Lielou City, where Qin was stationed. Xuzhili's people knew he would not return, and all wept as they sent him off. When he arrived, Qin immediately beheaded him. Hulan Zhi, elder brother of Xuzhili and marquis who assisted the state, led more than two thousand of Xuzhili's people, drove off the livestock and property, and took the whole state away in surrender to the Xiongnu.

At this time Mang changed the chanyu's seal. The chanyu was resentful and angry. He then received Hulan Zhi's surrender and sent troops with him to raid and attack Cheshi. They killed the chief of the Later City and wounded the Protector-General's sima. Then Hulan's troops again returned into the Xiongnu. At that time the Wuji commandant Dao Hu was ill. He sent the secretary Chen Liang to garrison Huanqie Valley and prepare against Xiongnu raids. The secretary Zhong Dai collected grain. Han Xuan, deputy to the sima, commanded the various walls. Ren Shang, right quhou, commanded the various ramparts. Together they plotted, saying: "The Western Regions states are rather much in rebellion. The Xiongnu wish to invade greatly. We are sure to die. We can kill the commandant, lead the people, and surrender to the Xiongnu."

They then led several thousand cavalry to the commandant's office and coerced the station officers into burning the piled firewood. They separately announced to the various walls: "One hundred thousand Xiongnu cavalry have come in. Officials and soldiers must all take weapons. Those who come late will be beheaded." They obtained three hundred four men and halted several li from the commandant's office. At dawn the fires were burning. The commandant opened the gate, beat the drum, and gathered officials and soldiers. Liang and the others entered with them and then killed the commandant Dao Hu, his four sons, and the sons of his brothers, leaving only the women and small children. They stopped and remained in the Wuji commandant's city, and sent men to communicate with the Xiongnu southern general. The southern general used two thousand cavalry to receive Liang and the others. Liang and the others coerced and seized all the Wuji commandant's officials, soldiers, men, and women, more than two thousand persons, and entered the Xiongnu. The chanyu made Liang and Dai Wuben commandants.

Three years later, the chanyu died, and his younger brother Xian, Wulei Chanyu, was established. He again made peace and marriage with Mang. Mang sent envoys carrying much gold and silk to bribe the chanyu and buy the return of Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, and the others. The chanyu arrested all four men, together with Zhiyin, who had personally killed Dao Hu, and the wives, children, and subordinates of these men, twenty-seven persons in all. All were shackled and handed over to the envoys in prison carts. When they reached Chang'an, Mang burned them all to death. Afterward Mang again deceived the chanyu, and peace and marriage were severed. The Xiongnu struck the northern frontier heavily, and the Western Regions also broke apart like tiles. The state of Yanqi was near the Xiongnu and rebelled first, killing Protector-General Dan Qin. Mang could not punish it.

In the second year of Tianfeng, Mang then sent Wang Jun, Five Awe General, and Li Chong, Protector-General of the Western Regions, to lead the Wuji commandants out into the Western Regions. The various states all met them outside the cities and sent troops and grain. Yanqi feigned surrender but gathered troops and prepared for itself. Jun and the others led more than seven thousand troops from Shache and Qiuci, divided them into several divisions, and entered Yanqi. Yanqi set ambushes and intercepted Jun. The troops of Gumo, Yuli, and Weixu acted as turncoats, returned, and together attacked Jun and the others, killing them all. Only Guo Qin, Wuji commandant, led troops separately and reached Yanqi later. The Yanqi troops had not yet returned, and Qin struck and killed their old and weak, then drew off his troops and returned. Mang enfeoffed Qin as Baron Who Cuts Down the Hu. Li Chong gathered the remaining soldiers and returned to secure himself at Qiuci. Several years later Mang died. Chong was then lost, and the Western Regions were consequently cut off.

The total number of states was fifty. From chief interpreters, city chiefs, lords, supervisors, clerks, Dalu, chiefs of a hundred, chiefs of a thousand, commandants, juqu, danghu, generals, and chancellors up to marquises and kings, all wore Han seals and cords, three hundred seventy-six persons in all. But Kangju, the Great Yuezhi, Anxi, Jibin, Wuyi, and their kind were all so utterly distant that they were not included in the count. When they came with tribute, Han and they made mutual return gifts; they were not supervised, registered, and collectively governed.

The appraisal says: In the age of Emperor Wu, he planned to control the Xiongnu. He was troubled that they might join the western states and form a party with the Southern Qiang. He therefore marked the bends of the Yellow River, arrayed the western commanderies, opened Yumen, and communicated with the Western Regions, in order to cut off the Xiongnu's right arm and separate them from the Southern Qiang and the Yuezhi. The chanyu lost his support. From this he fled far away, and there was no royal court south of the desert.

It happened that Emperors Wen and Jing had been deep and quiet, nourishing the people for five generations. The empire was full and rich, its wealth and strength more than sufficient, its soldiers and horses powerful and flourishing. Therefore, when rhinoceros cloth and tortoiseshell were seen, the seven divisions of Zhuya were established. When goujiang sauce and bamboo staffs moved interest, Zangke and Yuexi were opened. When heavenly horses and grapes were heard of, communication was opened with Dawan and Anxi.

After this, the treasures of distant places and strange things came from all four sides. Bright pearls, patterned shell, whole rhinoceros horn, and kingfisher feathers filled the rear palace. Pushao, Dragon Pattern, Fish Eye, and blood-sweating horses filled the palace stables. Herds of huge elephants, lions, fierce dogs, and great birds were fed in the outer parks. Thereupon Shanglin was opened wide, Kunming Pond was dug, palaces of a thousand gates and ten thousand doors were built, the Divine Brightness and Heaven-Piercing towers were set up, and the Jia and Yi tents were raised and strung with Sui pearls and He's jade. The Son of Heaven leaned against an embroidered screen, wrapped himself in kingfisher coverlets, rested on a jade armrest, and dwelt within.

He set out pools of wine and forests of meat to feast the guests of the four Yi. He made spectacles of Bayu, Dulu, Dangji from the sea, sprawling fish and dragons, and jiaodi wrestling to show them. As for bribes, gifts, presentations, and send-offs, they were offered to one another across ten thousand li; the costs of armies and expeditions could not be fully counted. When expenses became insufficient, the state monopolized the sale of wine, controlled salt and iron, cast white-metal currency, made leather money, taxed down to carts and boats, and levied even the six domestic animals. The people's strength was bent down, and wealth and supplies were exhausted. Bad years followed on this; raiders and robbers rose together; the roads did not communicate. Only then did the directly commissioned envoys first go out, wearing embroidered robes and carrying axes, beheading and executing in the commanderies and kingdoms. After that they prevailed.

For this reason, in his final years Emperor Wu finally abandoned the land of Luntai and issued the edict of grief and pain. Was this not something a humane and sage ruler regretted? Moreover, in communicating with the Western Regions, nearby there is the Longdui; far away there are the Congling, the hardships of Body-Heat, Headache, and Xuandu. The arguments of Huainan, Du Qin, and Yang Xiong all considered that this was how Heaven and Earth divided regions and separated outer from inner. The Documents says, "The western Rong were brought into order." Yu completed the work and ordered them; he did not bring their tribute goods by awe and force from above.

The various states of the Western Regions each had rulers and chiefs. Their troops and people were divided and weak, and they had no unity. Although they belonged to the Xiongnu, they were not intimate or attached to one another. The Xiongnu could obtain their horses, livestock, felt, and rugs, but could not command them to advance and retreat together. They were separated from Han and the roads were also distant. To gain them was no benefit; to abandon them was no loss. Flourishing virtue lay with us. There was nothing to take from them.

Therefore, since Jianwu, the Western Regions have thought of Han's awe and virtue, and all have delighted in belonging inwardly. Only their small towns, Shanshan and Cheshi, whose borders press close to the Xiongnu, are still held back by them. But the great states, Shache, Yutian, and their kind, have repeatedly sent envoys and placed hostages in Han, wishing to request subordination to the Protector-General. The sage sovereign, surveying antiquity and the present from afar and following what the times require, has held them by loose reins without cutting them off, declining and not yet allowing it. This combines the righteousness of Great Yu ordering the western Rong, the Duke of Zhou refusing the white pheasant, and Emperor Taizong rejecting the running horses. What could be added to this?

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was prepared for the Scythian shelf by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. The English is an independent rendering from the source-language Chinese, with existing English displays and translations used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Compiled and formatted for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: 漢書 卷九十六 西域傳

Classical Chinese source text from Ban Gu's Han Shu, chapter 96, the Western Regions account. Presented here for reference, study, and verification alongside the English translation above.

Roads, Protectorate, and Shanshan

西域以孝武時始通，本三十六國，其後稍分至五十餘，皆在匈奴之西，烏孫之南。南北有大山，中央有河，東西六千餘里，南北千餘里。東則接漢，阨以玉門、陽關，西則限以蔥嶺。其南山，東出金城，與漢南山屬焉。其河有兩原：一出蔥嶺山，一出于闐。于闐在南山下，其河北流，與蔥嶺河合，東注蒲昌海。蒲昌海，一名鹽澤者也，去玉門、陽關三百餘里，廣袤三百里。其水亭居，冬夏不增減，皆以為潛行地下，南出於積石，為中國河云。

自玉門、陽關出西域有兩道。從鄯善傍南山北，波河西行至莎車，為南道；南道西踰蔥嶺則出大月氏、安息。自車師前王廷隨北山，波河西行至疏勒，為北道；北道西踰蔥嶺則出大宛、康居、奄蔡焉耆。

西域諸國大率土著，有城郭田畜，與匈奴、烏孫異俗，故皆役屬匈奴。匈奴西邊日逐王置僮僕都尉，使領西域，常居焉耆、危須、尉黎間，賦稅諸國，取富給焉。

自周衰，戎狄錯居涇渭之北。及秦始皇攘卻戎狄，築長城，界中國，然西不過臨洮。

漢興至于孝武，事征四夷，廣威德，而張騫始開西域之跡。其後驃騎將軍擊破匈奴右地，降渾邪、休屠王，遂空其地，始築令居以西，初置酒泉郡，後稍發徙民充實之，分置武威、張掖、敦煌，列四郡，據兩關焉。自貳師將軍伐大宛之後，西域震懼，多遣使來貢獻，漢使西域者益得職。於是自敦煌西至鹽澤，往往起亭，而輪臺、渠犁皆有田卒數百人，置使者校尉領護，以給使外國者。

至宣帝時，遣衛司馬使護鄯善以西數國。及破姑師，未盡殄，分以為車師前後王及山北六國。時漢獨護南道，未能盡并北道也，然匈奴不自安矣。其後日逐王畔單于，將眾來降，護鄯善以西使者鄭吉迎之。既至漢，封日逐王為歸德侯，吉為安遠侯。是歲，神爵三年也。乃因使吉并護北道，故號曰都護。都護之起，自吉置矣。僮僕都尉由此罷，匈奴益弱，不得近西域。於是徙屯田，田於北胥鞬，披莎車之地，屯田校尉始屬都護。都護督察烏孫、康居諸外國動靜，有變以聞。可安輯，安輯之；可擊，擊之。都護治烏壘城，去陽關二千七百三十八里，與渠犁田官相近，土地肥饒，於西域為中，故都護治焉。

至元帝時，復置戊己校尉，屯田車師前王庭。是時匈奴東蒲類王茲力支將人眾千七百餘人降都護，都護分車師後王之西為烏貪訾離地以處之。

自宣、元後，單于稱藩臣，西域服從，其土地山川王侯戶數道里遠近翔實矣。

出陽關，自近者始，曰婼羌。婼羌國王號去胡來王。去陽關千八百里，去長安六千三百里，辟在西南，不當孔道。戶四百五十，口千七百五十，勝兵者五百人。西與且末接。隨畜逐水草，不田作，仰鄯善、且末穀。山有鐵，自作兵，兵有弓、矛、服刀、劍、甲。西北至鄯善，乃當道云。

鄯善國，本名樓蘭，王治扜泥城，去陽關千六百里，去長安六千一百里。戶千五百七十，口萬四千一百，勝兵二千九百十二人。輔國侯、卻胡侯、鄯善都尉、擊車師都尉、左右且渠、擊車師君各一人，譯長二人。西北去都護治所千七百八十五里，至山國千三百六十五里，西北至車師千八百九十里。地沙鹵，少田，寄田仰穀旁國。國出玉，多葭葦、檉柳、胡桐、白草。民隨畜牧逐水草，有驢馬，多橐它。能作兵，與婼羌同。

初，武帝感張騫之言，甘心欲通大宛諸國，使者相望於道，一歲中多至十餘輩。樓蘭、姑師當道，苦之，攻劫漢使王恢等，又數為匈奴耳目，令其兵遮漢使。漢使多言其國有城邑，兵弱易擊。於是武帝遣從票侯趙破奴將屬國騎及郡兵數萬擊姑師。王恢數為樓蘭所苦，上令恢佐破奴將兵。破奴與輕騎七百人先至，虜樓蘭王，遂破姑師，因暴兵威以動烏孫、大宛之屬。還，封破奴為浞野侯，恢為浩侯。於是漢列亭障至玉門矣。

樓蘭既降服貢獻，匈奴聞，發兵擊之。於是樓蘭遣一子質匈奴，一子質漢。後貳師軍擊大宛，匈奴欲遮之，貳師兵盛不敢當，即遣騎因樓蘭候漢使後過者，欲絕勿通。時漢軍正任文將兵屯玉門關，為貳師後距，捕得生口，知狀以聞。上詔文便道引兵捕樓蘭王。將詣闕，簿責王，對曰：「小國在大國間，不兩屬無以自安。願徙國入居漢地。」上直其言，遣歸國，亦因使候司匈奴。匈奴自是不甚親信樓蘭。

征和元年，樓蘭王死，國人來請質子在漢者，欲立之。質子常坐漢法，下蠶室宮刑，故不遣。報曰：「侍子，天子愛之，不能遣。其更立其次當立者。」樓蘭更立王，漢復責其質子，亦遣一子質匈奴。後王又死，匈奴先聞之，遣質子歸，得立為王。漢遣使詔新王，令入朝，天子將加厚賞。樓蘭王後妻，故繼母也，謂王曰：「先王遣兩子質漢皆不還，奈何欲往朝乎？」王用其計，謝使曰：「新立，國未定，願待後年入見天子。」然樓蘭國最在東垂，近漢，當白龍堆，乏水草，常主發導，負水儋糧，送迎漢使，又數為吏卒所寇，懲艾不便與漢通。後復為匈奴反間，數遮殺漢使。其弟尉屠耆降漢，具言狀。

元鳳四年，大將軍霍光白遣平樂監傅介子往刺其王。介子輕將勇敢士，齎金幣，揚言以賜外國為名。既至樓蘭，詐其王欲賜之，王喜，與介子飲，醉，將其王屏語，壯士二人從後刺殺之，貴人左右皆散走。介子告諭以「王負漢罪，天子遣我誅王，當更立王弟尉屠耆在漢者。漢兵方至，毋敢動，自令滅國矣！」介子遂斬王嘗歸首，馳傳詣闕，縣首北闕下。封介子為義陽侯。乃立尉屠耆為王，更名其國為鄯善，為刻印章，賜宮女為夫人，備車騎輜重，丞相率百官送至橫門外，祖而遣之。王自請天子曰：「身在漢久，今歸，單弱，而前王有子在，恐為所殺。國中有伊循城，其地肥美，願漢遣二將屯田積穀，令臣得依其威重。」於是漢遣司馬一人、吏士四十人，田伊循以填撫之。其後更置都尉。伊循官置始此矣。

鄯善當漢道衝，西通且末七百二十里。自且末以往皆種五穀，土地草木，畜產作兵，略與漢同，有異乃記云。

Southern Road Oasis States

且末國，王治且末城，去長安六千八百二十里。戶二百三十，口千六百一十，勝兵三百二十人。輔國侯、左右將、譯長各一人。西北至都護治所二千二百五十八里，北接尉犁，南至小宛可三日行。有蒲陶諸果。西通精絕二千里。

小宛國，王治扜零城，去長安七千二百一十里。戶百五十，口千五十，勝兵二百人。輔國侯、左右都尉各一人。西北至都護治所二千五百五十八里，東與婼羌接，辟南不當道。

精絕國，王治精絕城，去長安八千八百二十里。戶四百八十，口三千三百六十，勝兵五百人。精絕都尉、左右將、譯長各一人。北至都護治所二千七百二十三里，南至戎盧國四日行，地阨骥，西通扜彌四百六十里。

戎盧國，王治卑品城，去長安八千三百里。戶二百四十，口千六百一十，勝兵三百人。東北至都護治所二千八百五十八里，東與小宛、南與婼羌、西與渠勒接，辟南不當道。

扜彌國，王治扜彌城，去長安九千二百八十里。戶三千三百四十，口二萬四十，勝兵三千五百四十人。輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉、左右騎君各一人，譯長二人。東北至都護治所三千五百五十三里，南與渠勒、東北與龜茲、西北與姑墨接，西通于闐三百九十里。今名寧彌。

渠勒國，王治鞬都城，去長安九千九百五十里。戶三百一十，口二千一百七十，勝兵三百人。東北至都護治所三千八百五十二里，東與戎盧、西與婼羌、北與扜彌接。

于闐國，王治西城，去長安九千六百七十里。戶三千三百，口萬九千三百，勝兵二千四百人。輔國侯、左右將、左右騎君、東西城長、譯長各一人。東北至都護治所三千九百四十七里，南與婼羌接，北與姑墨接。于闐之西，水皆西流，注西海；其東，水東流，注鹽澤，河原出焉。多玉石。西通皮山三百八十里。

皮山國，王治皮山城，去長安萬五十里。戶五百，口三千五百，勝兵五百人。左右將、左右都尉、騎君、譯長各一人。東北至都護治所四千二百九十二里，西南至烏秅國千三百四十里，南與天篤接，北至姑墨千四百五十里，西南當罽賓、烏弋山離道，西北通莎車三百八十里。

烏秅國，王治烏秅城，去長安九千九百五十里。戶四百九十，口二千七百三十三，勝兵七百四十人。東北至都護治所四千八百九十二里，北與子合、蒲犁，西與難兜接。山居，田石間。有白草。累石為室。民接手飲。出小步馬，有驢無牛。其西則有縣度，去陽關五千八百八十八里，去都護治所五千二百里。縣度者，石山也，谿谷不通，以繩索相引而度云。

西夜國，王號子合王，治呼犍谷，去長安萬二百五十里。戶三百五十，口四千，勝兵千人。東北到都護治所五千四十六里，東與皮山、西南與烏秅、北與莎車、西與蒲犁接。蒲犁反依耐、無雷國皆西夜類也。西夜與胡異，其種類羌氐行國，隨畜逐水草往來。而子合土地出玉石。

蒲犁國，王治蒲犁谷，去長安九千五百五十里。戶六百五十，口五千，勝兵二千人。東北至都護治所五千三百九十六里，東至莎車五百四十里，北至疏勒五百五十里，南與西夜子合接，西至無雷五百四十里。侯、都尉各一人。寄田莎車。種俗與子合同。

依耐國，王治去長安萬一百五十里。戶一百二十五，口六百七十，勝兵三百五十人。東北至都護治所二千七百三十里，至莎車五百四十里，至無雷五百四十里，北至疏勒六百五十里，南與子合接，俗相與同。少穀，寄田疏勒、莎車。

無雷國，王治盧城，去長安九千九百五十里。戶千，口七千，勝兵三千人。東北至都護治所二千四百六十五里，南至蒲犁五百四十里，南與烏秅、北與捐毒、西與大月氏接。衣服類烏孫，俗與子合同。

難兜國，王治去長安萬一百五十里。戶五千，口三萬一千，勝兵八千人。東北至都護治所二千八百五十里，西至無雷三百四十里，西南至罽賓三百三十里，南與婼羌、北與休循、西與大月氏接。種五穀、蒲陶諸果。有銀銅鐵，作兵與諸國同，屬罽賓。

Jibin, Anxi, and the Great Yuezhi

罽賓國，王治循鮮城，去長安萬二千二百里。不屬都護。戶口勝兵多，大國也。東北至都護治所六千八百四十里，東至烏秅國二千二百五十里，東北至難兜國九日行，西北與大月氏、西南與烏弋山離接。

昔匈奴破大月氏，大月氏西君大夏，而塞王南君罽賓。塞種分散，往往為數國。自疏勒以西北，休循、捐毒之屬，皆故塞種也。

罽賓地平，溫和，有目宿，雜草奇木，檀、櫰、梓、竹、漆。種五穀、蒲陶諸果，糞治園田。地下溼，生稻，冬食生菜。其民巧，雕文刻鏤，治宮室，織罽，剌文繡，好治食。有金銀銅錫，以為器。市列。以金銀為錢，文為騎馬，幕為人面。出封牛、水牛、象、大狗、沐猴、孔爵、珠璣、珊瑚、虎魄、璧流離。它畜與諸國同。

自武帝始通罽賓，自以絕遠，漢兵不能至，其王烏頭勞數剽殺漢使。烏頭勞死，子代立，遣使奉獻。漢使關都尉文忠送其使。王復欲害忠，忠覺之，乃與容屈王子陰末赴共合謀，攻罽賓，殺其王，立陰末赴為罽賓王，授印綬。後軍候趙德使罽賓。與陰末赴相失，陰末赴鎖琅當德，殺副已下七十餘人，遣使者上書謝。孝元帝以絕域不錄，放其使者於縣度，絕而不通。

成帝時，復遣使獻謝罪，漢欲遣使者報送其使，杜欽說大將軍王鳳曰：「前罽賓王陰末赴本漢所立，後卒畔逆。夫德莫大於有國子民，罪莫大於執殺使者，所以不報恩，不懼誅者，自知絕遠，兵不至也。有求則卑辭，無欲則嬌嫚，終不可懷服。凡中國所以為通厚蠻夷，轺快其求者，為壤比而為寇也。今縣度之阨，非罽賓所能越也。其鄉慕，不足以安西域；雖不附，不能危城郭。前親逆節，惡暴西域，故絕而不通；今悔過來，而無親屬貴人，奉獻者皆行賈賤人，欲通貨市買，以獻為名，故煩使者送至縣度，恐失實見欺。凡遣使送客者，欲為防護寇害也。起皮山南，更不屬漢之國四五，斥候士百餘人，五分夜擊刀斗自守，尚時為所侵盜。驢畜負糧，須諸國稟食，得以自贍。國或貧小不能食，或桀黠不肯給，擁彊漢之節，餒山谷之間，乞饨無所得，離一二旬則人畜棄捐曠野而不反。又歷大頭痛、小頭痛之山，赤土、身熱之阪，令人身熱無色，頭痛嘔吐，驢畜盡然。又有三池、盤石阪，道骥者尺六七寸，長者徑三十里。臨崢嶸不測之深，行者騎步相持，繩索相引，二千餘里乃到縣度。畜隊，未半阬谷盡靡碎；人墮，勢不得相收視。險阻危害，不可勝言。聖王分九州，制五服，務盛內，不求外。今遣使者承至尊之命，送蠻夷之賈，勞吏士之眾，涉危難之路，罷弊所恃以事無用，非久長計也。使者業已受節，可至皮山而還。」於是鳳白從欽言。罽賓實利賞賜賈市，其使數年而壹至云。

烏弋山離國，王去長安萬二千二百里。不屬都護。戶口勝兵，大國也。東北至都護治所六十日行，東與罽賓、北與撲挑、西與犁靬、條支接。

行可百餘日，乃至條支。國臨西海，暑溼，田稻。有大鳥，卵如甕。人眾甚多，往往有小君長，安息役屬之，以為外國。善眩。安息長老傳聞條支有弱水、西王母。亦未嘗見也。自條支乘水西行，可百餘日，近日所入云。

烏弋地暑熱莽平，其草木、畜產、五穀、果菜、食飲、宮室、市列、錢貨、兵器、金珠之屬皆與罽賓同，而有桃拔、師子、犀牛。俗重妄殺。其錢獨文為人頭。幕為騎馬。以金銀飾杖。絕遠，漢使希至。自玉門、陽關出南道，歷鄯善而南行，至烏弋山離，南道極矣。

安息國，王治番兜城，去長安萬一千六百里。不屬都護。北與康居、東與烏弋山離、西與條支接。土地風氣，物類所有，民俗與烏弋、罽賓同。亦以銀為錢，文獨為王面，幕為夫人面。王死輒更鑄錢。有大馬爵。其屬小大數百城，地方數千里，最大國也。臨媯水，商賈車船行旁國。書革，旁行為書記。

武帝始遣使至安息，王令將將二萬騎迎於東界。東界去王都數千里，行比至，過數十城，人民相屬。因發使隨漢使者來觀漢地，以大鳥卵及犁靬眩人獻於漢，天子大說。安息東則大月氏。

大月氏國，治監氏城，去長安萬一千六百里。不屬都護。戶十萬，口四十萬，勝兵十萬人。東至都護治所四千七百四十里，西至安息四十九日行，南與罽賓接。土地風氣，物類所有，民俗錢貨，與安息同。出一封橐駝。

大月氏本行國也，隨畜移徙，與匈奴同俗。控弦十餘萬，故彊輕匈奴。本居敦煌、祁連間，至冒頓單于攻破月氏，而老上單于殺月氏，以其頭為飲器，月氏乃遠去，過大宛，西擊大夏而臣之，都媯水北為王庭。其餘小眾不能去者，保南山羌，號小月氏。

大夏本無大君長，城邑往往置小長，民弱畏戰，故月氏徙來，皆臣畜之，共稟漢使者。有五翕侯：一曰休密翕侯，治和墨城，去都護二千八百四十一里，去陽關七千八百二里；二曰雙靡翕侯，治雙靡城，去都護三千七百四十一里，去陽關七千七百八十二里；三曰貴霜翕侯，治護澡城，去都護五千九百四十里，去陽關七千九百八十二里；四曰肸頓翕侯，治薄茅城，去都護五千九百六十二里，去陽關八千二百二里；五曰高附臓侯，治高附城，去都護六千四十一里，去陽關九千二百八十三里。凡五翕侯，皆屬大月氏。

Kangju, Dawan, and the Sai States

康居國，王冬治樂越匿地。到卑闐城。去長安萬二千三百里。不屬都護。至越匿地馬行七日，至王夏所居蕃內九千一百四里。戶十二萬，口六十萬，勝兵十二萬人。東至都護治所五千五百五十里。與大月氏同俗。東羈事匈奴。

宣帝時，匈奴乖亂，五單于並爭，漢擁立呼韓邪單于，而郅支單于怨望，殺漢使者，西阻康居。其後都護甘延壽、副校尉陳湯發戊已校尉西域諸國兵至康居，誅滅郅支單于，語在甘延壽、陳湯傳。是歲，元帝建昭三年也。

至成帝時，康居遣子侍漢，貢獻，然自以絕遠，獨驕嫚，不肯與諸國相望。都護郭舜數上言：「本匈奴盛時，非以兼有烏孫、康居故也；及其稱臣妾，非以失二國也。漢雖皆受其質子，然三國內相輸遺，交通如故，亦相候司，見便則發；合不能相親信，離不能相臣役。以今言之，結配烏孫竟未有益，反為中國生事。然烏孫既結在前，今與匈奴俱稱臣，義不可距。而康居驕黠，訖不肯拜使者。都護吏至其國，坐之烏孫諸使下，王及貴人先飲食已，乃飲啗都護吏，故為無所省以夸旁國。以此度之，何故遣子入侍？其欲賈市為好，辭之詐也。匈奴百蠻大國，今事漢甚備，聞康居不拜，且使單于有自下之意，宜歸其侍子，絕勿復使，以章漢家不通無禮之國。敦煌、酒泉小郡及南道八國，給使者往來人馬驢橐駝食，皆苦之。空罷耗所過，送迎驕黠絕遠之國。非至計也。」漢為其新通，重致遠人，終羈縻而未絕。

其康居西北可二千里，有奄蔡國。控弦者十餘萬大。與康居同俗。臨大澤，無崖，蓋北海云。

康居有小王五：一曰蘇筹王，治蘇筹城，去都護五千七百七十六里，去陽關八千二十五里；二曰附墨王，治附墨城，去都護五千七百六十七里，去陽關八千二十五里；三曰窳匿王，治窳匿城，去都護五千二百六十六里，去陽關七千五百二十五里；四曰罽王，治罽城，去都護六千二百九十六里，去陽關八千五百五十五里；五曰奧鞬王，治奧鞬城，去都護六千九百六里，去陽關八千三百五十五里。凡五王，屬康居。

大宛國，王治貴山城，去長安萬二千二百五十里。戶六萬，口三十萬，勝兵六萬人。副王，輔國王各一人。東至都護治所四千三十一里，北至康居卑闐城千五百一十里，西南至大月氏六百九十里。北與康居、南與大月氏接，土地風氣物類民俗與大月氏、安息同。大宛左右以蒲陶為酒，富人藏酒至萬餘石，久者至數十歲不敗。俗耆酒，馬耆目宿。

宛別邑七十餘城，多善馬。馬汗血，言其先天馬子也。

張騫始為武帝言之，上遣使者持千金及金馬，以請宛善馬。宛王以漢絕遠，大兵不能至，愛其寶馬不肯與。漢使妄言，宛遂攻殺漢使，取其財物。於是天子遣貳師將軍李廣利將兵前後十餘萬人伐宛，連四年。宛人斬其王毋寡首，獻馬三千匹，漢軍乃還，語在張騫傳。貳師既斬宛王，更立貴人素遇漢善者名昧蔡為宛王。後歲餘，宛貴人以為昧蔡諂，使我國遇屠，相與兵殺昧蔡，立毋寡弟蟬封為王，遣子入侍，質於漢，漢因使使賂賜鎮撫之。又發數十餘輩，抵宛西諸國求其物，因風諭以代宛之威。宛王蟬封與漢約，歲獻天馬二匹。漢使采蒲陶、目宿種歸。天子以天馬多，又外國使來眾，益種蒲陶、目宿離宮館旁，極望焉。

自宛以西至安息國，雖頗異言，然大同，自相曉知也。其人皆深目，多須敘。善賈市，爭分銖。貴女子；女子所言，丈夫乃決正。其地皆絲漆，不知鑄鐵器。及漢使亡卒降，教鑄作它兵器。得漢黃白金，輒以為器，不用為幣。

自烏孫以西至安息，近匈奴。匈奴嘗困月氏，故匈奴使持單于一信到國，國傳送食，不敢留苦。及至漢使，非出幣物不得食，不市畜不得騎，所以然者，以遠漢，而漢多財物，故必市乃得所欲。及呼韓邪單于朝漢，後咸尊漢矣。

桃槐國，王去長安萬一千八十里。戶七百，口五千，勝兵千人。

休循國，王治鳥飛谷，在蔥嶺西，去長安萬二百一十里。戶三百五十八，口千三十，勝兵四百八十人。東至都護治所三千一百二十一里，至捐毒衍敦谷二百六十里，西北至大宛國九百二十里，西至大月氏千六百一十里。民俗衣服類烏孫，因畜隨水草，本故塞種也。

捐毒國，王治衍敦谷，去長安九千八百六十里。戶三百八十，口千一百，勝兵五百人。東至都護治所二千八百六十一里。至疏勒。南與蔥領屬，無人民。西上蔥領，則休循也。西北至大宛千三十里，北與烏孫接。衣服類烏孫，隨水草，依蔥領，本塞種也。

莎車國，王治莎車城，去長安九千九百五十里。戶二千三百三十九，口萬六千三百七十三，勝兵三千四十九人。輔國侯、左右將、左右騎君、備西夜君各一人，都尉二人，譯長四人。東北至都護治所四千七百四十六里，西至疏勒五百六十里，西南至蒲犁七百四十里。有鐵山，出青玉。

宣帝時，烏孫公主小子萬年，莎車王愛之。莎車王無子死，死時萬年在漢。莎車國人計欲自託於漢，又欲得烏孫心，即上書請萬年為莎車王。漢許之，遣使者奚充國送萬年。萬年初立，暴惡，國人不說。莎車王弟呼屠徵殺萬年，并殺漢使者，自立為王，約諸國背漢。會衛候馮奉世使送大宛客，即以便宜發諸國兵擊殺之，更立它昆弟子為莎車王。還，拜奉世為光祿大夫。是歲，元康元年也。

疏勒國，王治疏勒城，去長安九千三百五十里。戶千五百一十，口萬八千六百四十七，勝兵二千人。疏勒侯、擊胡侯、輔國侯、都尉、左右將、左右騎君、左右譯長各一人。東至都護治所二千二百一十里，南至莎車五百六十里。有市列，西當大月氏、大宛、康居道也。

尉頭國，王治尉頭谷，去長安八千六百五十里。戶三百，口二千三百，勝兵八百人。左右都尉各一人，左右騎君各一人。東至都護治所千四百一十一里，南與疏勒接，山道不通，西至捐毒千三百一十四里，徑道馬行二日。田畜隨水草，衣服類烏孫。

Wusun, Princesses, and the Han Alliance

烏孫國，大昆彌治赤谷城，去長安八千九百里。戶十二萬，口六十三萬，勝兵十八萬八千八百人。相，大祿，左右大將二人，侯三人，大將、都尉各一人，大監二人，大吏一人，舍中大吏二人，騎君一人。東至都護治所千七百二十一里，西至康居蕃內地五千里。地莽平。多雨，寒。山多松樠。不田作種樹，隨畜逐水草，與匈奴同俗。國多馬，富人至四五千匹。民剛惡，貪狠無信，多寇盜，最為彊國。故服匈奴，後盛大，取羈屬，不肯往朝會。東與匈奴、西北與康居、西與大宛、南與城郭諸國相接。本塞地也，大月氏西破走塞王，塞王南越縣度，大月氏居其地。後烏孫昆莫擊破大月氏，大月氏徙西臣大夏，而烏孫昆莫居之，故烏孫民有塞種、大月氏種云。

始張騫言烏孫本與大月氏共在敦煌間，今烏孫雖彊大，可厚賂招，令東居故地，妻以公主，與為昆弟，以制匈奴。語在張騫傳。武帝即位，令騫齎金幣往。昆莫見騫如單于禮，騫大慚，謂曰：「

天子致賜，王不拜，則還賜。」昆莫起拜，其它如故。

初，昆莫有十餘子，中子大祿彊，善將，將眾萬餘騎別居。大祿兄太子，太子有子曰岑陬。太子蚤死，謂昆莫曰：「必以岑陬為太子。」昆莫哀許之。大祿怒，乃收其昆弟，將眾畔，謀攻岑陬。昆莫與岑陬萬餘騎，令別居，昆莫亦自有萬餘騎以自備。國分為三，大總羈屬昆莫。騫既致賜，諭指曰：「烏孫能東居故地，則漢遣公主為夫人，結為昆弟，共距匈奴，不足破也。」烏孫遠漢，未知其大小，又近匈奴，服屬日久，其大臣皆不欲徙。昆莫年老國分，不能專制，乃發使送騫，因獻馬數十匹報謝。其使見漢人眾富厚，歸其國，其國後乃益重漢。

匈奴聞其與漢通，怒欲擊之。又漢使烏孫，乃出其南，抵大宛、月氏，相屬不絕。烏孫於是恐，使使獻馬，願得尚漢公主，為昆弟。天子問群臣，議許，曰：「必先內聘，然後遣女。」烏孫以馬千匹聘。漢元封中，遣江都王建女細君為公主，以妻焉。賜乘輿服御物，為備官屬宦官侍御數百人，贈送甚盛。烏孫昆莫以為右夫人。匈奴亦遣女妻昆莫，昆莫以為左夫人。

公主至其國，自治宮室居，歲時一再與昆莫會，置酒飲食，以幣帛賜王左右貴人。昆莫年老，語言不通，公主悲愁，自為作歌曰：「

吾家嫁我兮天一方，遠託異國兮烏孫王。穹廬為室兮旃為牆，以肉為食兮酪為漿。居常土思兮心內傷，願為黃鵠兮歸故鄉。」天子聞而憐之，間歲遣使者持帷帳錦繡給遺焉。

昆莫年老，欲使其孫岑陬尚公主。公主不聽，上書言狀，天子報曰：「從其國俗，欲與烏孫共滅胡。」岑陬遂妻公主。昆莫死，岑陬代立。岑陬者，官號也，名軍須靡。昆莫，王號也，名獵驕靡。後書「昆彌」云。岑陬尚江都公主，生一女少夫。公主死，漢復以楚王戊之孫解憂為公主，妻岑陬。岑陬胡婦子泥靡尚小，岑陬且死，以國與季父大祿子翁歸靡，曰：「泥靡大，以國歸之。」

翁歸靡既立，號肥王，復尚楚主解憂，生三男兩女：長男曰元貴靡；次曰萬年，為莎車王；次曰大樂，為左大將；長女弟史為龜茲王絳賓妻；小女素光為若呼翕侯妻。

昭帝時，公主上書，言「匈奴發騎田車師，車師與匈奴為一，共侵烏孫，唯天子幸救之！」漢養士馬，議欲擊匈奴。會昭帝崩，宣帝初即位，公主及昆彌皆遣使上書，言「匈奴復連發大兵侵擊烏孫，取車延、惡師地，收人民去，使使謂烏孫趣持公主來，欲隔絕漢。昆彌願發國半精兵，自給人馬五萬騎，盡力擊匈奴。唯天子出兵以救公主、昆彌。」漢兵大發十五萬騎，五將軍分道並出。語在匈奴傳。遣校尉常惠使持節護烏孫兵，昆彌自將翕侯以下五萬騎從西方入，至右谷蠡王庭，獲單于父行及嫂、居次、名王、犁汙都尉、千長、騎將以下四萬級，馬牛羊驢橐駝七十餘萬頭，烏孫皆自取所虜獲。還，封惠為長羅侯。是歲，本始三年也。漢遣惠持金幣賜烏孫貴人有功者。

元康二年，烏孫昆彌因惠上書：「願以漢外孫元貴靡為嗣，得令復尚漢公主，結婚重親，畔絕匈奴，願聘馬执各千匹。」詔下公卿議，大鴻臚蕭望之以為「烏孫絕域，變故難保，不可許。」上美烏孫新立大功，又重絕故業，遣使者至烏孫，先迎取聘。昆彌及太子、左右大將、都尉皆遣使，凡三百餘人，入漢迎取少主。上乃以烏孫主解憂弟子相夫為公主，置官屬侍御百餘人，舍上林中，學烏孫言。天子自臨平樂觀，會匈奴使者、外國君長大角抵，設樂而遣之。使長盧侯光祿大夫惠為副，凡持節者四人，送少主至敦煌。未出塞，聞烏孫昆彌翁歸靡死，烏孫貴人共從本約，立岑陬子泥靡代為昆彌，號狂王。惠上書：「願留少主敦煌，惠馳至烏孫責讓不立元貴靡為昆彌，還迎少主。」事下公卿，望之復以為「烏孫持兩端，難約結。前公主在烏孫四十餘年，恩愛不親密，邊竟未得安，此已事之驗也。今少主以元貴靡不立而還，信無負於夷狄，中國之福也。少主不止，繇役將興，其原起此。」天子從之，徵還少主。

The Wusun Succession Crisis

狂王復尚楚主解憂，生一男鴟靡，不與主和，又暴惡失眾。漢使衛司馬魏和意、副候任昌送侍子，公主言狂王為烏孫所患苦，易誅也。遂謀置酒會，罷，使士拔劍擊之。劍旁下，狂王傷，上馬馳去。其子細沈瘦會兵圍和意、昌及公主於赤谷城。數月，都護鄭吉發諸國兵救之，乃解去。漢遣中郎將張遵持醫藥治狂王，賜金二十斤，采繒。因收和意、昌係瑣，從尉犁檻車至長安，斬之。車騎將軍長史張翁留驗公主與使者謀殺狂王狀，主不服，叩頭謝，張翁捽主頭罵詈。主上書，翁還，坐死。副使季都別將醫養視狂王，狂王從十餘騎送之。都還，坐知狂王當誅，見便不發，下蠶室。

初，肥王翁歸靡胡婦子烏就屠，狂王傷時驚，與諸翕侯俱去，居北山中，揚言母家匈奴兵來，故眾歸之。後逐襲殺狂王，自立為昆彌。漢遣破羌將軍辛武賢將兵萬五千人至敦煌，遣使者案行表，穿卑鞮侯井以西，欲通渠轉穀，積居廬倉以討之。

初，楚主侍者馮嫽能史書，習事，嘗持漢節為公主使，行賞賜於城郭諸國，敬信之，號曰馮夫人。為烏孫右大將妻，右大將與烏就屠相愛，都護鄭吉使馮夫人說烏就屠，以漢兵方出，必見滅，不如降。烏就屠恐，曰：「願得小號。」宣帝徵馮夫人，自問狀。遣謁者竺次、期門甘廷壽為副，送馮夫人。馮夫人錦車持節，詔

焉烏就屠詣長羅侯赤谷城，立元貴靡為大昆彌，烏就屠為小昆彌，皆賜印綬。破羌將軍不出塞還。後烏就屠不盡歸諸翕侯民眾，漢復遣長羅侯惠將三校屯赤谷，因為分別其人民地界，大昆彌戶六萬餘，小昆彌戶四萬餘，然眾心皆附小昆彌。

元貴靡、鴟靡皆病死，公主上書言年老土思，願得歸骸骨，葬漢地。天子閔而迎之，公主與烏孫男女三人俱來至京師。是歲，甘露三年也。時年且七十，賜以公主田宅奴婢，奉養甚厚，朝見儀比公主。後二歲卒，三孫因留守墳墓云。

元貴靡子星靡代為大昆彌，弱，馮夫人上書，願使烏孫鎮撫星彌。漢遣之，卒百人送烏孫焉。都護韓宣奏，烏孫大吏、大祿、大監皆可以賜金印紫綬，以尊輔大昆彌，漢許之。後都護韓宣復奏，星靡怯弱，可免，更以季父左大將樂代為昆彌，漢不許。後段會宗為都護，招還亡畔，安定之。

星靡死，子雌栗靡代。小昆彌烏就屠死，子拊離代立，為弟日貳所殺。漢遣使者立拊離子安日為小昆彌。日貳亡，阻康居。漢徙己校屯姑墨，欲候便討焉。安日使貴人姑莫匿等三人詐亡從日貳，刺殺之。都護廉褒賜姑莫匿等金人二十斤，繒三百匹。

後安日為降民所殺，漢立其弟末振將代。時大昆彌雌栗靡健，翕侯皆畏服之，告民牧馬畜無使入牧，國中大安和翁歸靡時。小昆靡末振將恐為所并，使貴人烏日領詐降刺殺雌栗靡。漢欲以兵討之而未能，遣中郎將段會宗持金幣與都護圖方略，立雌栗靡季父公主孫伊秩靡為大昆彌。漢沒入小昆彌侍子在京師者。久之，大昆彌翕侯難栖殺末振將，末振將兄安日子安犁莠代為小昆彌。漢恨不自責誅末振將，復使段會宗即斬其太子番丘。還，賜爵關內侯。是歲，元延二年也。

會宗以翕侯難栖殺末振將，雖不指為漢，合於討賊，奏以為堅守都尉。責大祿、大吏、大監以雌栗靡見殺狀，奪金印紫綬，更與銅墨云。末振將弟卑爰疐本共謀殺大昆彌，將眾八萬餘口北附康居，謀欲藉兵兼并兩昆彌。兩昆彌畏之，親倚都護。

哀帝元壽二年，大昆彌伊秩靡與單于並入朝，漢以為榮。至元始中，卑爰疐殺烏日領以自效，漢封為歸義侯。兩昆彌皆弱，卑爰疐侵陵，都護孫建襲殺之。自烏孫分立兩昆彌後，漢用憂勞，且無寧歲。

Northern Oasis States and the Luntai Edict

姑墨國，王治南城，去長安八千一百五十里。戶三千五百，口二萬四千五百，勝兵四千五百人。姑墨侯、輔國侯、都尉、左右將、左右騎君各一人，譯長二人。東至都護治所一千二十一里，南至於闐馬行十五日，北與烏孫接。出銅、鐵、雌黃。東通龜茲六百七十里。王莽時，姑墨王丞殺溫宿王，并其國。

溫宿國，王治溫宿城，去長安八千三百五十里。戶二千二百，口八千四百，勝兵千五百人。輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉、左右騎君、譯長各二人。東至都護治所二千三百八十里，西至尉頭三百里，北至烏孫赤谷六百一十里。土地物類所有與鄯善諸國同。東通姑墨二百七十里。

龜茲國，王治延城，去長安七千四百八十里。戶六千九百七十，口八萬一千三百一十七，勝兵二萬一千七十六人。大都尉丞、輔國侯、安國侯、擊胡侯、卻胡都尉、擊車師都尉、左右將、左右都尉、左右騎君、左右力輔君各一人，東西南北部千長各二人，卻胡君三人，譯長四人。南與精絕、東南與且末、西南與杅彌、北與烏孫、西與姑墨接。能鑄冶，有鉛。東至都護治所烏壘城三百五十里。

烏壘，戶百一十，口千二百，勝兵三百人。城都尉、譯長各一人。與都護同治。其南三百三十里至渠犁。

渠犁，城都尉一人，戶百三十，口千四百八十，勝兵百五十人。東北與尉犁、東南與且末、南與精絕接。西有河，至龜茲五百八十里。

自武帝初通西域，置校尉，屯田渠犁。是時軍旅連出，師行三十二年，海內虛耗。征和中，貳師將軍李廣利以軍降匈奴。上既悔遠征伐，而搜粟都尉桑弘羊與丞相御史奏言：「故輪臺以東捷枝、渠犁皆故國，地廣，饒水草，有溉田五千頃以上，處溫和，田美，可益通溝渠，種五穀，與中國同時孰。其旁國少錐刀，貴黃金采繒，可以易穀食，宜給足不可乏。臣愚以為可遣屯田卒詣故輪臺以東，置校尉三人分護，各舉圖地形，通利溝渠，務使以時益種五穀。張掖、酒泉遣騎假司馬為斥候，屬校尉，事有便宜，因騎置以聞。田一歲，有積穀，募民壯健有累重敢徙者詣田所，就畜積為本業，益墾溉田，稍築列亭，連城而西，以威西國，輔烏孫，為便。臣謹遣徵事臣昌分部行邊，嚴敕太守都尉明餍火，選士馬，謹斥候，蓄茭草。願陛下遣使使西國，以安其意。臣昧死請。」

上乃下詔，深陳既往之悔，曰：「前有司奏，欲益民賦三十助邊用，是重困老弱孤獨也。而今又請遣卒田輪臺。輪臺西於車師千餘里，前開陵侯擊車師時，危須、尉犁、樓蘭六國子弟在京師者皆先歸，發畜食迎漢軍，又自發兵，凡數萬人，王各自將，共圍車師，降其王。諸國兵便罷，力不能復至道上食漢軍。漢軍破城，食至多，然士自載不足以竟師，彊者盡食畜產，羸者道死數千人。朕發酒泉驢橐駝負食，出玉門迎軍。吏卒起張掖，不甚遠，然尚廝留甚眾。曩者，朕之不明，以軍候弘上書言『匈奴縛馬前後足，置城下，馳言「秦人，我饨若馬」』，又漢使者久留不還，故興師遣貳師將軍，欲以為使者威重也。古者卿大夫與謀，參以蓍龜，不吉不行。乃者以縛馬書遍視丞相御史二千石諸大夫郎為文學者，乃至郡屬國都尉成忠、趙破奴等，皆以『虜自縛其馬，不祥甚哉！』或以為『

欲以見彊，夫不足者視人有餘。』易之，卦得大過，爻在九五，匈奴困敗。公車方士、太史治星望氣，及太卜龜蓍，皆以為吉，匈奴必破，時不可再得也。又曰『北伐行將，於釜山必克。』卦諸將，貳師最吉。故朕親發貳師下釜山，詔之必毋深入。今計謀卦兆皆反繆。重合侯

毋虜侯者，言『聞漢軍當來，匈奴使巫埋羊牛所出諸道及水上以詛軍。單于遺天子馬裘，常使巫祝之。縛馬者，詛軍事也。』又卜『漢軍一將不吉』。匈奴常言『漢極大，然不能飢渴，失一狼，走千羊。』乃者貳師敗，軍士死略離散，悲痛常在朕心。今請遠田輪臺，欲起亭隧，是擾勞天下，非所以優民也。今朕不忍聞。大鴻臚等又議，欲募囚徒送匈奴使者，明封侯之賞以報忿，五伯所弗能為也。且匈奴得漢降者，常提掖搜索，問以所聞。今邊塞未正，闌出不禁，障候長吏使卒獵獸，以皮肉為利，卒苦而烽火乏，失亦上集不得，後降者來，若捕生口虜，乃知之。當今務在禁苛暴，止擅賦，力本農，脩馬復令，以補缺，毋乏武備而已。郡國二千石各上進畜馬方略補邊狀，與計對。」由是不復出軍。而封丞相車千秋為富民侯，以明休息，思富養民也。

初，貳師將軍李廣利擊大宛，還過杅彌，杅彌遣太子賴丹為質於龜茲。廣利責龜茲曰：「外國皆臣屬於漢，龜茲何以得受杅彌質？」即將賴丹入至京師。昭帝乃用桑弘羊前議，以杅彌太子賴丹為校尉將軍，田輪臺，輪臺與渠犁地皆相連也。龜茲貴人姑翼謂其王曰：「賴丹本臣屬吾國，今佩漢印綬來，迫吾國而田，必為害。」王即殺賴丹，而上書謝漢，漢未能征。

Qiuci and the Northern Small States

宣帝時，長羅侯常惠使烏孫還，便宜發諸國兵，合五萬人攻龜茲，責以前殺校尉賴丹。龜茲王謝曰：「乃我先王時為貴人姑翼所誤，我無罪。」執姑翼詣惠，惠斬之。時烏孫公主遣女來至京師學鼓琴，漢遣侍郎樂奉送主女，過龜茲。龜茲前遣人至烏孫求公主女，未還。會女過龜茲，龜茲王留不遣，復使使報公主，主許之。後公主上書，願令女比宗室入朝，而龜茲王絳賓亦愛其夫人，上書言得尚漢外孫為昆弟，願與公主女俱入朝。元康元年，逐來朝賀。王及夫人皆賜印綬。夫人號稱公主，賜以車騎旗鼓，歌吹數十人，綺繡雜繒琦珍凡數千萬。留且一年，厚贈送之。後數來朝賀，樂漢衣服制度，歸其國，治宮室，作徼道周衛，出入傳呼，撞鐘鼓，如漢家儀。外國胡人皆曰：「驢非驢，馬非馬，若龜茲王，所謂执也。」絳賓死，其子丞德自謂漢外孫，成、哀帝時往來尤數，漢遇之亦甚親密。

東通尉犁六百五十里。

尉犁國，王治尉犁城，去長安六千七百五十里。戶千二百，口九千六百，勝兵二千人。尉犁侯、安世侯、左右將、左右都尉、擊胡君各一人，譯長二人。西至都護治所三百里，南與鄯善、且末接。

危須國，王治危須城，去長安七千二百九十里。戶七百，口四千九百，勝兵二千人。擊胡侯、擊胡都尉、左右將、左右都尉、左右騎君、擊胡君、譯長各一人。西至都護治所五百里，至焉耆百里。

焉耆國，王治員渠城，去長安七千三百里。戶四千，口三萬二千一百，勝兵六千人。擊胡侯、卻胡侯、輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉、擊胡左右君、擊車師君、歸義車師君各一人，擊胡都尉、擊胡君各二人，譯長三人。西南至都護治所四百里，南至尉犁百里，北與烏孫接。近海水多魚。

烏貪訾離國，王治于婁谷，去長安萬三百三十里。戶四十一，口二百三十一，勝兵五十七人。輔國侯、左右都尉各一人。東與單桓、南與且彌、西與烏孫接。

卑陸國，王治天山東乾當國，去長安八千六百八十里。戶二百二十七，口千三百八十七，勝兵四百二十二人。輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉、左右譯長各一人。西南至都護治所千二百八十七里。

卑陸後國，王治番渠類谷，去長安八千七百一十里。戶四百六十二，口千一百三十七，勝兵三百五十人。輔國侯、都尉、譯長各一人，將二人。東與郁立師、北與匈奴、西與劫國、南與車師接。

郁立師國，王治內咄谷，去長安八千八百三十里。戶百九十，口千四百四十五，勝兵三百三十一人。輔國侯、左右都尉、譯長各一人。東與車師後城長、西與卑陸、北與匈奴接。

單桓國，王治單桓城，去長安八千八百七十里。戶二十七，口百九十四，勝兵四十五人。輔國侯、將、左右都尉、譯長各一人。

蒲類國，王治天山西疏榆谷，去長安八千三百六十里。戶三百二十五，口二千三十二，勝兵七百九十九人。輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉各一人。西南至都護治所千三百八十七里。

蒲類後國，王去長安八千六百三十里。戶百，口千七十，勝兵三百三十四人。輔國侯、將、左右都尉、譯長各一人。

西且彌國，王治天山東于大谷，去長安八千六百七十里。戶三百三十二，口千九百二十六，勝兵七百三十八人。西且彌侯、左右將、左右騎君各一人。西南至都護治所千四百八十七里。

東且彌國，王治天山東兌虛谷，去長安八千二百五十里。戶百九十一，口千九百四十八，勝兵五百七十二人。東且彌侯、左右都尉各一人。西南至都護治所千五百八十七里。

劫國，王治天山東丹渠谷，去長安八千五百七十里。戶九十九，口五百，勝兵百一十五人。輔國侯、都尉、譯長各一人。西南至都護治所千四百八十七里。

狐胡國，王治車師柳谷，去長安八千二百里。戶五十五，口二百六十四，勝兵四十五人。輔國侯、左右都尉各一人。西至都護治所千一百四十七里，至焉耆七百七十里。

山國，王去長安七千一百七十里。戶四百五十，口五千，勝兵千人。輔國侯、左右將、左右都尉、譯長各一人。西至尉犁二百四十里，西北至焉耆百六十里，西至危須二百六十里，東南與鄯善、且末接。山出鐵，民山居，寄田糴穀於焉耆、危須。

Cheshi, Collapse, and Ban Gu's Judgment

車師前國，王治交河城。河水分流繞城下，故號交河。去長安八千一百五十里。戶七百，口六千五十，勝兵千八百六十五人。輔國侯、安國侯、左右將、都尉、歸漢都尉、車師君、通善君、鄉善君各一人，譯長二人。西南至都護治所千八百七里，至焉耆八百三十五里。

車師後王國，治務塗谷，去長安八千九百五十里。戶五百九十五，口四千七百七十四，勝兵千八百九十人。擊胡侯、左右將、左右都尉、道民君、譯長各一人。西南至都護治所千二百三十七里。

車師都尉國，戶四十，口三百三十三，勝兵八十四人。

車師後城長國，戶百五十四，口九百六十，勝兵二百六十人。

武帝天漢二年，以匈奴降者介和王為開陵侯，將樓蘭國兵始擊車師，匈奴遣右賢王將數萬騎救之，漢兵不利，引去。征和四年，遣重合侯馬通將四萬騎擊匈奴，道過車師北，復遣開陵侯將樓蘭、尉犁、危須凡六國兵別擊車師，勿令得遮重合侯。諸國兵共圍車師，車師王降服，臣屬漢。

昭帝時，匈奴復使四千騎田車師。宣帝即位，遣五將將兵擊匈奴，車師田者驚去，車師復通於漢。匈奴怒，召其太子軍宿，欲以為質。軍宿，焉耆外孫，不欲質匈奴，亡走焉耆。車師王更立子烏貴為太子。及烏貴立為王，與匈奴結婚姻，教匈奴遮漢道通烏孫者。

地節二年，漢遣侍郎鄭吉、校尉司馬憙將免刑罪人田渠犁，積穀，欲以攻車師。至秋收穀，吉、憙發城郭諸國兵萬餘人，自與所將田士千五百人共擊車師，攻交河城，破之。王尚在其北石城中，未得，會軍食盡，吉等且罷兵，歸渠犁田。秋收畢，復發兵攻車師王於石城。王聞漢兵且至，北走匈奴求救，匈奴未為發兵。王來還，與貴人蘇猶議欲降漢，恐不見信。蘇猶教王擊匈奴邊國小蒲類，斬首，略其人民，以降吉。車師旁小金附國隨漢軍後盜車師，車師王復自請擊破金附。

匈奴聞車師降漢，發兵攻車師，吉、憙引兵北逢之，匈奴不敢前。吉、憙即留一候與卒二十人留守王，吉等引兵歸渠犁。車師王恐匈奴兵復至而見殺也，乃輕騎奔烏孫，吉即迎其妻子置渠犁。東奏事，至酒泉，有詔還田渠犁及車師，益積穀以安西國，侵匈奴。吉還，傳送車師王妻子詣長安，賞賜甚厚，每朝會四夷，常尊顯以示之。於是吉始使吏卒三百人別田車師。得降者言，單于大臣皆曰「車師地肥美，近匈奴，使漢得之，多田積穀，必害人國，不可不爭也。」果遣騎來擊田者，吉乃與校尉盡將渠犁田士千五百人往田，匈奴復益遣騎來，漢田卒少不能當，保車師城中。匈奴將即其城下謂吉曰：「

單于必爭此地，不可田也。」圍城數日乃解。後常數千騎往來守車師，吉上書言：「車師去渠犁千餘里，間以河山，北近匈奴，漢兵在渠犁者勢不能相救，願益田卒。」公卿議以為道遠煩費，可且罷車師田者。詔遣長羅侯將張掖、酒泉騎出車師北千餘里，揚威武車師旁。胡騎引去，吉乃得出，歸渠犁，凡三校尉屯田。

車師王之走烏孫也，烏孫留不遣，遣使上書，願留車師王，備國有急，可從西道以擊匈奴。漢許之。於是漢召故車師太子軍宿在焉耆者，立以為王，盡徙車師國民令居渠犁，遂以車師故地與匈奴。車師王得近漢田官，與匈奴絕，亦安樂親漢。後漢使侍郎殷廣德責烏孫，求車師王烏孫貴，將詣闕，賜第與其妻子居。是歲，元康四年也。其後置戊己校尉屯田，居車師故地。

元始中，車師後王國有新道，出五船北，通玉門關，往來差近，戊己校尉徐普欲開以省道里半，避白龍堆之阨。車師後王姑句以道當為拄置，心不便也。地又頗與匈奴南將軍地接，普欲分明其界然後奏之，召姑句使證之，不肯，繫之。姑句數以牛羊賕吏，求出不得。姑句家矛端生火，其妻股紫陬謂姑句曰：「矛端生火，此兵氣也，利以用兵。前車師前王為都護司馬所殺，今久繫必死，不如降匈奴。」即馳突出高昌壁，入匈奴。

又去胡來王唐兜，國比大種赤水羌，數相寇，不勝，告急都護。都護但欽不以時救助，唐兜困急，怨欽，東守玉門關。玉門關不內，即將妻子人民千餘人亡降匈奴。匈奴受之，而遣使上書言狀。是時，新都侯王莽秉政，遣中郎將王昌等使匈奴，告單于西域內屬，不當得受。單于謝罪，執二王以付使者。莽使中郎王萌待西域惡都奴界上逢受。單于遣使送，因請其罪。使者以聞，莽不聽，詔下會西域諸國王，陳軍斬姑句、唐兜以示之。

至莽篡位，建國二年，以廣新公甄豐為右伯，當出西域。車師後王須置離聞之，與其右將股鞮、左將尸泥支謀曰：「聞甄公為西域太伯，當出，故事給使者牛羊穀芻茭，導譯，前五威將過，所給使尚未能備。今太伯復出，國益貧，恐不能稱。」欲亡入匈奴。戊己校尉刀護聞之，召置離驗問，辭服，乃械致都護但欽在所埒婁城。置離人民知其不還，皆哭而送之。至，欽則斬置離。置離兄輔國侯狐蘭支將置離眾二千餘人，驅畜產，舉國亡降匈奴。

是時，莽易單于璽，單于恨怒，遂受狐蘭支降，遣兵與共寇擊車師，殺後城長，傷都護司馬，及狐蘭兵復還入匈奴。時戊己校尉刀護病，遣史陳良屯桓且谷備匈奴寇，史終帶取糧食，司馬丞韓玄領諸壁，右曲候任商領諸壘，相與謀曰：「西域諸國頗背叛，匈奴欲大侵，要死。可殺校尉，將人眾降匈奴。」即將數千騎至校尉府，脅諸亭令燔積薪，分告諸壁曰：「匈奴十萬騎來入，吏士皆持兵，後者斬！」得三百四人，去校尉府數里止，晨火然。校尉開門擊鼓收吏士，良等隨入，遂殺校尉刀護及子男四人、諸昆弟子男，獨遺婦女小兒。止留戊己校尉城，遣人與匈奴南將軍相聞，南將軍以二千騎迎良等。良等盡脅略戊己校尉吏士男女二千餘人入匈奴。單于以良、帶為烏賁都尉。

後三歲，單于死，弟烏絫單于咸立，復與莽和親。莽遣使者多齎金幣賂單于，購求陳良、終帶等。單于盡收四人及手殺刀護者芝音妻子以下二十七人，皆械檻車付使者。到長安，莽皆燒殺之。其後莽復欺詐單于，和親遂絕。匈奴大擊北邊，而西域亦瓦解。焉耆國近匈奴，先叛，殺都護但欽，莽不能討。

天鳳二年，乃遣五威將王駿、西域都護李崇將戊己校尉出西域，諸國皆郊迎，送兵穀。焉耆詐降而聚兵自備。駿等將莎車、龜茲兵七千餘人，分為數部入焉耆，焉耆伏兵要遮駿。及姑墨、尉犁、危須國兵為反間，還共襲擊駿等，皆殺之。唯戊己校尉郭欽別將兵，後至焉耆。焉耆兵未還，欽擊殺其老弱，引兵還。莽封欽為剼胡子。李崇收餘士，還保龜茲。數年莽死，崇遂沒，西域因絕。

最凡國五十。自譯長、城長、君、監、吏、大祿、百長、千長、都尉、且渠、當戶、將、相至侯、王，皆佩漢印綬，凡三百七十六人。而康居、大月氏、安息、罽賓、烏弋之屬，皆以絕遠不在數中，其來貢獻則相與報，不督錄總領也。

贊曰：孝武之世，圖制匈奴，患其兼從西國，結黨南羌，乃表河曲，列西郡，開玉門，通西域，以斷匈奴右臂，隔絕南羌、月氏。單于失援，由是遠遁，而幕南無王庭。

遭值文、景玄默，養民五世，天下殷富，財力有餘，士馬彊盛。故能睹犀布、玳瑁則建珠崖七部，感枸醬、竹杖則開牂柯、越嶲，聞天馬、蒲陶則通大宛、安息。自是之後，明珠、文甲、通犀、翠羽之珍盈於後宮，蒲梢、龍文、魚目、汗血之馬充於黃門，鉅象、師子、猛犬、大雀之群食於外囿。殊方異物，四面而至。於是廣開上林，穿昆明池，營千門萬戶之宮，立神明通天之臺，興造甲乙之帳，落以隨珠和璧，天子負黼依，襲翠被，馮玉几，而處其中。設酒池肉林以饗四夷之客，作巴俞都盧、海中碭極、漫衍魚龍、角抵之戲以觀視之。及賂遺贈送，萬里相奉，師旅之費，不可勝計。至於用度不足，乃榷酒酤，筦鹽鐵，鑄白金，造皮幣，算至車船，租及六畜。民力屈，財用竭，因之以凶年，寇盜並起，道路不通，直指之使始出，衣繡杖斧，斷斬於郡國，然後勝之。是以末年遂棄輪臺之地，而下哀痛之詔，豈非仁聖之所悔哉！且通西域，近有龍堆，遠則蔥嶺，身熱、頭痛、縣度之阨。淮南、杜欽、揚雄之論，皆以為此天地所以界別區域，絕外內也。書曰「西戎即序」，禹既就而序之，非上威服致其貢物也。

西域諸國，各有君長，兵眾分弱，無所統一，雖屬匈奴，不相親附。匈奴能得其馬畜旃罽，而不能統率與之進退。與漢隔絕，道里又遠，得之不為益，棄之不為損。盛德在我，無取於彼。故自建武以來，西域思漢威德，咸樂內屬。唯其小邑鄯善、車師，界迫匈奴，尚為所拘。而其大國莎車、于闐之屬，數遣使置質于漢，願請屬都護。聖上遠覽古今，因時之宜，羇縻不絕，辭而未許。雖大禹之序西戎，周公之讓白雉，太宗之卻走馬，義兼之矣，亦何以尚茲！

Source Colophon

The source text was inspected from Chinese Text Project, Ban Gu, Han Shu, Western Regions chapter, using the on-disk source capture and the companion archival source-text page for this project. The CTP page identifies the digital base as the Wuyingdian Twenty-Four Histories edition of the Han Shu. This unified page presents the unified source chapter in English.

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