Later Han, Kushan, Alanliao, and the Western Road
This is a Good Works Translation produced by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese text of Fan Ye's Hou Han Shu, chapter 88, the Western Regions annals.
The chapter returns to the Western Regions after the Former Han account: the reopening and loss of the frontier, the southern road toward Da Qin, Kushan and India, Alanliao, Shache and Shule, Yanqi and Cheshi, and the historian's judgment on the burden of governing distant lands.
For the Scythian shelf, Hou Han Shu 88 extends the eastern archive into the Later Han world. It records how the oasis and steppe frontier changed after the age of Shiji and Han Shu, and it gives the library a Chinese witness for Kushan power, Alanliao, Da Qin routes, and the continuing problem of imperial reach across Central Eurasia.
The English translation was newly made from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. Existing English displays and translations were used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.
Translation
Reopening the Western Regions
In Emperor Wu's time, the Western Regions belonged inwardly to Han and had thirty-six states. Han set up envoys and commandants to lead and protect them. Emperor Xuan changed the title to Protector-General. Emperor Yuan again established the two Wuji commandants and had them garrison-farm at the royal court of Former Cheshi. In the time of Emperors Ai and Ping, the states divided and cut themselves apart until there were fifty-five states.
When Wang Mang usurped the throne, he degraded and altered the ranks of marquises and kings. Because of this the Western Regions resented and rebelled; they were then cut off from the Middle States and all again became subject in service to the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu collected taxes heavily and harshly, and the various states could not endure their commands. In the Jianwu period, all sent envoys asking to belong inwardly and requesting a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, because the empire had only just been settled and there had not yet been leisure for external affairs, in the end did not allow it.
When the Xiongnu happened to decline and weaken, Xian, king of Shache, executed and destroyed the various states. After Xian died, they then attacked one another in turn. Xiaowan, Jingjue, Ronglu, and Qiemo were annexed by Shanshan. Qule and Pishan were governed by Yutian, which possessed all their lands. Yuli, Shanhuan, Guhu, and Wutanzili were destroyed by Cheshi. Later these states were all reestablished.
In the Yongping period, the northern captives then coerced the various states into joining them in raiding the commanderies and counties of Hexi, so that city gates were closed in daylight. In the sixteenth year, Emperor Ming then ordered generals and commanders to campaign north against the Xiongnu. They took the land of Yiwulu, established the Yihe commandant to garrison-farm it, and then opened communication with the Western Regions. Yutian and the other states all sent sons to attend as hostages. After the Western Regions had been cut off for sixty-five years, they were then connected again. The next year, for the first time, the Protector-General and Wuji commandants were established.
When Emperor Ming died, Yanqi and Qiuci attacked and killed the Protector-General Chen Mu and overthrew all his troops. The Xiongnu and Cheshi surrounded the Wuji commandants. In the spring of the first year of Jianchu, Duan Peng, governor of Jiuquan, greatly defeated Cheshi at Jiaohe City. Emperor Zhang did not wish to wear out the Middle States in order to serve affairs among the Yi and Di. He therefore received back the Wuji commandants and did not again send a Protector-General. In the second year, the garrison farms at Yiwu were again abolished, and the Xiongnu accordingly sent troops to guard the land of Yiwu.
At that time Ban Chao, army sima, remained in Yutian and soothed and gathered the various states. In the first year of Yongyuan under Emperor He, the great general Dou Xian greatly defeated the Xiongnu. In the second year, Xian then sent the deputy commandant Yan Pan to lead more than two thousand cavalry in a surprise attack on Yiwu and break it. In the third year, Ban Chao then settled the Western Regions, and Chao was accordingly made Protector-General, dwelling at Qiuci. The Wuji commandants were again established, leading five hundred troops and dwelling at Gaochang Wall in the Former Division of Cheshi. A Wubu scout officer was also established, dwelling at Scout City in the Later Division of Cheshi; the two were five hundred li apart.
In the sixth year, Ban Chao again attacked and defeated Yanqi. Thereupon more than fifty states all sent hostages and belonged inwardly. Tiaozhi, Anxi, and the other states as far as the coast of the sea, more than forty thousand li away, all sent tribute through multiple interpreters. In the ninth year, Ban Chao sent his clerk Gan Ying, who reached the western sea and returned. These were all places not reached by former ages and not fully detailed in the Classic of Mountains. Their customs and lands were all recorded, and their precious and strange things were transmitted. Thereupon distant states such as Mengqi and Doule all came to submit and sent envoys with tribute.
When Emperor He died, the Western Regions turned away and rebelled. In the first year of Yongchu under Emperor An, they repeatedly attacked and surrounded the Protector-General Ren Shang, Duan Xi, and others. The court considered the regions dangerous and distant, and difficult to answer and hurry to. An edict abolished the Protector-General. From this time the Western Regions were then abandoned. The Northern Xiongnu immediately again gathered the various states under their control, and together they made border raids for more than ten years.
Cao Zong, governor of Dunhuang, was troubled by their violent harm. In the sixth year of Yuanchu, he then memorialized, and Han sent the acting chief clerk Suo Ban to lead more than a thousand men and garrison Yiwu in order to summon and pacify the region. Thereupon the Former King of Cheshi and the king of Shanshan came in surrender. After several months, the Northern Xiongnu again led the king of the Later Division of Cheshi and together attacked and killed Ban and the others. They then struck and drove away the Former King of Cheshi. Shanshan was pressed hard and sought rescue from Cao Zong. Zong therefore requested that troops be sent out to attack the Xiongnu, avenge the shame of Suo Ban, and again advance to take the Western Regions. Empress Dowager Deng did not allow it. She only ordered the establishment of a deputy commandant protecting the Western Regions, dwelling at Dunhuang, and again assigned three hundred camp soldiers; this was merely loose restraint. Afterward the northern captives repeatedly entered Hexi in raids together with Cheshi, and the court could not stop them. Those debating the matter therefore wished to close Yumen and Yang Pass in order to cut off the trouble.
These things are all said to have been recorded by Ban Yong at the end of Emperor An's reign.
The states of the Western Regions that belonged inwardly extended more than six thousand li east to west and more than one thousand li north to south. In the east they reached Yumen and Yang Pass; in the west they reached the Congling. To the northeast they touched the Xiongnu and Wusun. To the south and north there were great mountains, and in the center there was a river. The southern mountains issued eastward from Jincheng and joined the southern mountains of Han. The river had two sources: one came out of the Congling and flowed east; one came out beneath the southern mountains of Yutian and flowed north, joined the river from the Congling, and flowed east into Puchang Sea. Puchang Sea was also called Salt Marsh and was more than three hundred li from Yumen.
Going west from Dunhuang out through Yumen and Yang Pass, one crossed Shanshan. Northward, the road communicated with Yiwu, more than one thousand li away. From Yiwu northward, it communicated with Gaochang Wall in the Former Division of Cheshi, one thousand two hundred li away. From Gaochang Wall northward, it communicated with Jinman City in the Later Division, five hundred li away. These were the gates and doors of the Western Regions; therefore the Wuji commandants garrisoned them in alternation. The land of Yiwu was suitable for the five grains, mulberries, hemp, and grapes. North of it there was also Liuzhong. All were rich and fertile lands. Therefore Han always fought the Xiongnu over Cheshi and Yiwu in order to control the Western Regions.
From Shanshan, crossing the Congling to go out to the western states, there were two roads. Beside the northern side of the southern mountains, following the river west to Shache, was the southern road. Westward across the Congling by the southern road, one then came out to the states of the Great Yuezhi and Anxi. From the royal court of the Former King of Cheshi, following the northern mountains and following the river west to Shule, was the northern road. Westward across the Congling by the northern road, one came out to Dawan, Kangju, Yancai, and Yanqi.
The Southern Road to Da Qin
Going out through Yumen, passing through Shanshan, Qiemo, and Jingjue, after more than three thousand li one arrived at Kumi.
The state of Kumi dwelt at Ningmi City. It was four thousand nine hundred li from Liuzhong, where the chief clerk dwelt, and twelve thousand eight hundred li from Luoyang. It governed two thousand one hundred seventy-three households, seven thousand two hundred fifty-one people, and one thousand seven hundred sixty men able to bear arms.
In the fourth year of Yongjian under Emperor Shun, Fangqian, king of Yutian, previously killed Xing, king of Kumi, set up his own son as king of Kumi, and sent envoys to present tribute to Han. Xu You, governor of Dunhuang, submitted a request to punish him. The emperor pardoned Yutian's offense and ordered it to return the state of Kumi, but Fangqian would not do so. In the first year of Yangjia, Xu You sent Chenpan, king of Shule, to mobilize twenty thousand men and attack Yutian. He broke it, cut off several hundred heads, released the troops to plunder greatly, established Chengguo, a clansman of Xing, as king of Kumi, and returned.
In the fourth year of Xiping under Emperor Ling, Anguo, king of Yutian, attacked Kumi, greatly defeated it, and killed its king. The dead were very many. The Wuji commandant and the chief clerk of the Western Regions each sent troops to assist and establish Dingxing, Kumi's attending son, as king. At that time the people numbered only about one thousand mouths. The state bordered Yutian to the west, three hundred ninety li away.
The state of Yutian dwelt at Xicheng. It was five thousand three hundred li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and eleven thousand seven hundred li from Luoyang. It governed thirty-two thousand households, eighty-three thousand people, and more than thirty thousand men able to bear arms.
At the end of Jianwu, Xian, king of Shache, was powerful and flourishing. He attacked and annexed Yutian and moved its king Yulin, making him king of Ligui. In the Yongping period under Emperor Ming, Xiumoba, a general of Yutian, rebelled against Shache and set himself up as king of Yutian. When Xiumoba died, his elder brother's son Guangde was established. Later he then destroyed Shache, and his state became increasingly strong. The thirteen states from Jingjue northwest to Shule all submitted to him. The king of Shanshan also first became strong and flourishing then. From that time, on the southern road east of the Congling, only these two states were great.
In the sixth year of Yongjian under Emperor Shun, Fangqian, king of Yutian, sent an attending son to the imperial gate with tribute. In the first year of Yuanjia, the chief clerk Zhao Ping died in Yutian of a swollen sore. Ping's son went to receive the funeral, and his road passed through Kumi. Chengguo, king of Kumi, had long had a quarrel with Jian, king of Yutian, and therefore told Ping's son: "The king of Yutian ordered a Hu doctor to put poison medicine in the wound; that is why he died." Ping's son believed him, returned inside the frontier, and reported it to Ma Da, governor of Dunhuang.
The next year Wang Jing replaced Zhao Ping as chief clerk. Ma Da ordered Jing to investigate the matter secretly. Jing first passed through Kumi, and Chengguo again persuaded him, saying: "The people of Yutian wish to make me king. Now if you punish Jian for this offense, Yutian will surely submit." Jing coveted achievement and reputation and also accepted Chengguo's words. He went forward to Yutian, set out supplies and invited Jian, while secretly plotting against him. Someone told Jian of Jing's plot, but Jian did not believe it and said: "I have no offense. Why would Chief Clerk Wang wish to kill me?"
The next morning, Jian followed his officials, several tens of men, to Jing. When they were seated, Jian rose and made the rounds with wine. Jing shouted to his attendants to seize him. The officials and soldiers all had no intention of killing Jian, and all his officials were able to rush out and escape. At that time Qin Mu, registrar of Chengguo, was following Jing and was present at the gathering. He came out holding a knife and said: "The great affair is already settled. Why still doubt?" He then went forward and beheaded Jian.
The Yutian marquis-general Shubo and others then assembled troops and attacked Jing. Jing held Jian's head and went up into a tower, declaring: "The Son of Heaven sent me to punish Jian." The Yutian marquis-general then burned the camp buildings, burned and killed the officials and soldiers, went up the tower, beheaded Jing, and hung his head in the market. Shubo wished to set himself up as king; the people of the state killed him and established Jian's son Anguo.
When Ma Da heard of it, he wished to lead troops of the various commanderies out beyond the frontier and attack Yutian. Emperor Huan did not listen. He summoned Da back and made Song Liang governor of Dunhuang in his place. When Liang arrived, he openly recruited men of Yutian and ordered them to behead Shubo themselves. At that time Shubo had already been dead for a month, so they cut off a dead man's head and sent it to Dunhuang without explaining the circumstances. Liang later learned of the deceit, but in the end he could not send out troops. Relying on this, Yutian then became arrogant.
From Yutian, going by way of Pishan, one arrived at Xiye, Zihe, and Deruo.
The state of Xiye, also called Piaosha, was fourteen thousand four hundred li from Luoyang. It had two thousand five hundred households, more than ten thousand people, and three thousand men able to bear arms. White grass grew in the land and was poisonous. The people of the state boiled it to make medicine, smeared it on arrowheads, and anyone hit by it died at once. The Han Shu mistakenly says that Xiye and Zihe were one state; now each has its own king.
The state of Zihe dwelt at Hujian Valley. It was one thousand li from Shule. It governed three hundred fifty households, four thousand people, and one thousand men able to bear arms.
The state of Deruo governed more than one hundred households, six hundred seventy people, and three hundred fifty men able to bear arms. Eastward it was three thousand five hundred thirty li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and twelve thousand one hundred fifty li from Luoyang. It bordered Zihe. Their customs were all the same.
From Pishan southwest, passing through Wucha, crossing Xuandu, and going through Jibin, after more than sixty days' travel one arrived at the state of Wuyishanli. Its territory was several thousand li square. At the time its name had been changed to Paichi.
Again going southwest by horse for more than one hundred days, one arrived at Tiaozhi.
The city of the state of Tiaozhi was on a mountain. It was more than forty li around. It faced the western sea. The sea water bent around its south and northeast, and on three sides the roads were cut off; only the northwest corner communicated with a land road. The land was hot and damp. It produced lions, rhinoceroses, humped cattle, peacocks, and great birds. The eggs of the great birds were like jars.
Turning north and east, again going more than sixty days by horse, one arrived at Anxi. Later Tiaozhi became subject in service to Anxi, which set up a great general there to supervise and govern the small cities.
The state of Anxi dwelt at Hedu City. It was twenty-five thousand li from Luoyang. To the north it bordered Kangju; to the south it bordered Wuyishanli. Its territory was several thousand li square. It had several hundred small cities. Its households, population, and men able to bear arms were the richest and most flourishing. Its eastern border was Mulu City, which was called Lesser Anxi and was twenty thousand li from Luoyang.
In the first year of Zhanghe under Emperor Zhang, Anxi sent envoys to present lions and fuba. The fuba was shaped like a qilin but had no horn. In the ninth year of Yongyuan under Emperor He, the Protector-General Ban Chao sent Gan Ying as envoy to Da Qin. He reached Tiaozhi. Facing the great sea, he wished to cross it, but sailors on the western border of Anxi told Ying: "The sea water is vast. Those going and returning, if they meet favorable winds, need three months to cross. If they meet slow winds, there are some who take two years. Therefore those who enter the sea all carry three years' grain. The sea is good at making people think of their native soil and long for home, and there are often deaths." Ying heard this and then stopped. In the thirteenth year, Manqu, king of Anxi, again presented lions and the great birds of Tiaozhi, which at that time were called Anxi birds.
From Anxi westward one traveled three thousand four hundred li to the state of Aman. From Aman westward one traveled three thousand six hundred li to the state of Sibin. From Sibin, going south across a river and then southwest, one arrived at the state of Yuluo after nine hundred sixty li. This was the farthest western border of Anxi. From here, going south by sea, one then communicated with Da Qin. Its land had many rare and strange things from west of the sea.
The state of Da Qin was also called Lijian. Because it was west of the sea, it was also called the state west of the sea. Its territory was several thousand li square and it had more than four hundred cities. Several tens of lesser states served under it. They made city walls of stone. They set out postal stations in rows, and all were plastered white. There were pines, cypresses, various trees, and the hundred grasses. The people's custom was to work hard at farming. They planted many trees, silkworms, and mulberries. They all shaved their heads and wore embroidered patterned clothing. They rode in small covered wagons with white canopies. When going in and out, they beat drums and set up standards, banners, and pennants.
The city where the king dwelt was more than one hundred li around. Within the city there were five palaces, each ten li apart from the others. The palace buildings all used crystal for pillars, and the eating vessels were the same. The king traveled each day to one palace and heard affairs; after five days he had gone through them all. He always had one person carrying a bag follow the royal carriage. If anyone had something to say about affairs, he put a written statement into the bag. When the king reached a palace he opened and examined them and judged what was crooked and straight. Each office had officials and documents. Thirty-six generals were established, and all met to deliberate on state affairs. Its king was not a constant hereditary man; they always selected and established a worthy one. If disasters or strange events occurred in the state, or if wind and rain were untimely, they immediately deposed him and established another. The one released from office accepted being dismissed and did not resent it. The people were all tall, large, upright, and regular, resembling the Middle States; therefore it was called Da Qin.
The land had much gold, silver, and rare treasures: night-shining disks, bright-moon pearls, haiji rhinoceros, coral, amber, glass, langgan, cinnabar, and blue-green stones. They embroidered with gold thread and wove gold-threaded rugs and multicolored twills. They made golden paint and fire-washed cloth. They also had fine cloth; some said it was made from the down of water sheep, others that it was made from cocoons of wild silkworms. They combined various aromatics and boiled their juices to make suhe. In general, all rare and strange things of foreign states came from there.
They used gold and silver as money; ten silver coins equaled one gold coin. They traded with Anxi and Tianzhu in the sea, and the profit was tenfold. Their people were honest and direct, and in the market there were not two prices. Grain and food were always cheap, and state supplies were rich and abundant. When envoys from neighboring states arrived at its border, they rode by relay to the royal capital; when they arrived, they were supplied with gold coins. Its king always wished to communicate by envoy with Han, but Anxi wished to trade with them in Han silks and colored fabrics, and therefore blocked and obstructed them so that they could not reach Han by themselves.
In the ninth year of Yanxi under Emperor Huan, Andun, king of Da Qin, sent envoys from beyond the frontier of Rinan to present ivory, rhinoceros horn, and tortoiseshell. Only then was communication first opened. The tribute they presented was altogether without rare or strange things, making one suspect that the transmitters had exaggerated.
Some say that west of that state there is Weak Water and Flowing Sand, near the place where the Queen Mother of the West dwells, nearly where the sun sets. The Han Shu says, "From Tiaozhi going west for more than two hundred days, one is near where the sun sets." This differs from the present book. Han envoys in former ages all came back from Wuyi and never reached Tiaozhi. It is also said: "From Anxi, taking the land road around the north of the sea and going out west of the sea to Da Qin, people and settlements are continuous. Every ten li there is a station, every thirty li a relay post. In the end there are no robbers or alarms, but on the road there are many fierce tigers and lions that block and harm travelers. Unless travelers are more than one hundred men and carry weapons, they are immediately eaten." It is also said: "There are flying bridges several hundred li long by which one can cross north of the sea." The strange and unusual jade and stone things produced by the various states are often deceptive, bizarre, and not in accord with the classics; therefore they are not recorded.
Kushan, India, and Alanliao
The state of the Great Yuezhi dwelt at Lanshi City. In the west it bordered Anxi, forty-nine days' travel away. Eastward, it was six thousand five hundred thirty-seven li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and sixteen thousand three hundred seventy li from Luoyang. It had one hundred thousand households, four hundred thousand people, and more than one hundred thousand men able to bear arms.
At first, the Yuezhi were destroyed by the Xiongnu and then moved to Daxia. They divided the state into Xiumi, Shuangmi, Guishuang, Xidun, and Dumi, five xihou divisions in all. More than one hundred years later, Qiujiuque, xihou of Guishuang, attacked and destroyed the four other xihou and set himself up as king. The state was called the Guishuang king. He invaded Anxi and took the land of Gaofu. He also destroyed Puda and Jibin, and possessed all their states.
Qiujiuque died when he was more than eighty years old. His son Yan Gaozhen succeeded him as king. He again destroyed Tianzhu and set up one general to supervise and govern it. From this time afterward, the Yuezhi became the richest and most flourishing of all. The various states all called them the Guishuang king. Han used their old name and spoke of the Great Yuezhi.
The state of Gaofu lay southwest of the Great Yuezhi and was also a large state. Its customs were like Tianzhu, but it was weak and easy to subdue. It was good at trade and peddling and inwardly rich in wealth. Its subordination was not fixed: when Tianzhu, Jibin, or Anxi was strong, that state obtained it; when weak, it lost it. It had never been subject to the Yuezhi. The Han Shu counted it among the five xihou divisions, but this was not the reality. Later it was subject to Anxi. Only when the Yuezhi broke Anxi did they first obtain Gaofu.
The state of Tianzhu, also called Shendu, lay several thousand li southeast of the Yuezhi. Its customs were the same as the Yuezhi, but the land was low, damp, and hot. The state bordered a great water. They rode elephants in battle. Its people were weaker than the Yuezhi. They cultivated the Way of the Buddha, and they did not kill or attack; this then became their custom. From the Yuezhi and Gaofu westward, south to the western sea and east to the state of Panqi, all was land of Shendu. Shendu had several hundred separate cities, each city with a chief. It had several tens of separate states, each state with a king. Although each differed slightly, all were named Shendu. At that time all were subject to the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi killed their king and set up a general, ordering him to govern their people.
The land produced elephants, rhinoceroses, tortoiseshell, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and tin. In the west it communicated with Da Qin and had rare things of Da Qin. It also had fine cloth, good carpets, many aromatics, rock honey, pepper, ginger, and black salt.
In Emperor He's time, Tianzhu several times sent envoys with tribute. Later, when the Western Regions rebelled, the connection was cut off. In the second and fourth years of Yanxi under Emperor Huan, they repeatedly came from beyond the frontier of Rinan to present tribute.
Tradition says that Emperor Ming dreamed he saw a golden man, tall and large, with light shining from the top of his head, and asked his assembled ministers about it. Someone said: "In the west there is a god named Buddha. His form is one zhang and six chi tall and the color of yellow gold." Thereupon the emperor sent envoys to Tianzhu to ask about the Buddha's Way and law, and then in the Middle States images of his form were painted. Ying, king of Chu, first believed in this art, and because of this there were rather many in the Middle States who served that Way. Later Emperor Huan loved spirits and repeatedly sacrificed to the Buddha and Laozi. The common people gradually had those who served it, and afterward it became increasingly flourishing.
The state of Dongli dwelt at Shaqi City, more than three thousand li southeast of Tianzhu. It was a large state. Its climate, products, and kinds of things were the same as Tianzhu. It had several tens of cities in rows, all calling themselves kings. The Great Yuezhi attacked it, and it then became subject and submitted. Men and women were all eight chi tall, but timid and weak. They rode elephants and camels in going back and forth to neighboring states. When there were raids, they rode elephants in battle.
The state of Liyi belonged to Kangju. It produced famous horses, cattle, sheep, grapes, and many fruits. Its land and water were beautiful; therefore its grape wine was especially famous.
The state of Yan lay north of Yancai and belonged to Kangju. It produced mouse pelts and sent them as revenue to Kangju.
The state of Yancai changed its name to the state of Alanliao. It dwelt at Dicheng and belonged to Kangju. Its climate was warm and mild, and there were many zhen-pines and white grass. The people's customs and clothing were the same as Kangju.
Shache and Shule
From the state of Shache, going west by way of Puli and Wulei, one arrived at the Great Yuezhi. Eastward, Shache was ten thousand nine hundred fifty li from Luoyang.
The Xiongnu chanyu took advantage of Wang Mang's disorder and had possession of the Western Regions. Only Yan, king of Shache, was the strongest and would not attach himself and become subject. In Emperor Yuan's time, he had once been an attending son and had grown up in the capital. He admired and delighted in the Middle States and had also participated in their statutes and laws. He always instructed his sons that in their generation they should serve the Han house and must not betray it. In the fifth year of Tianfeng, Yan died. He was posthumously titled King Zhongwu, and his son Kang succeeded him.
At the beginning of Guangwu's reign, Kang led the neighboring states in resisting the Xiongnu. He gathered and protected more than a thousand mouths, the wives and children of former Protector-General officials and soldiers, and sent written notices to Hexi asking about the movements and condition of the Middle States. He stated that he longed for the Han house. In the fifth year of Jianwu, Dou Rong, great general of Hexi, acting under imperial authority, established Kang as Han's King of Shache Who Established Merit and Cherished Virtue, and as grand commandant of the Western Regions. All fifty-five states belonged to him.
In the ninth year, Kang died. He was posthumously titled King Xuancheng. His younger brother Xian succeeded him. Xian attacked and broke the states of Kumi and Xiye, killed both their kings, and established two sons of his elder brother Kang as kings of Kumi and Xiye. In the fourteenth year, Xian and An, king of Shanshan, both sent envoys to the imperial gate with tribute. Thereupon the Western Regions first reopened communication. All the states east of the Congling belonged to Xian.
In the seventeenth year, Xian again sent envoys with tribute and requested the Protector-General. The Son of Heaven asked the grand minister of works Dou Rong about it. Rong thought that Xian's father, sons, and brothers had mutually pledged themselves to serve Han, and that their sincere loyalty was very complete; titles and rank should be added in order to settle and pacify them. The emperor therefore used Xian's envoy to bestow on Xian the seal and cord of Protector-General of the Western Regions, as well as carriages, banners, gold, brocade, and embroidery.
Pei Zun, governor of Dunhuang, memorialized: "The Yi and Di must not be lent great authority; moreover, this will cause the various states to lose hope." An edict ordered the Protector-General's seal and cord recovered and instead bestowed on Xian the seal and cord of Han great general. Xian's envoy refused to exchange them, and Zun forcibly seized the former seal. From this point Xian first began to resent Han. Yet he still falsely styled himself Great Protector-General and sent letters to the various states. All the states submitted and belonged to him, calling Xian chanyu. Xian gradually became arrogant and violent, heavily demanded levies and taxes, and repeatedly attacked Qiuci and the other states. The various states were sorrowful and afraid.
In the winter of the twenty-first year, the Former King of Cheshi, Shanshan, Yanqi, and eighteen other states all sent sons to attend and presented their treasures. When they obtained audience, all shed tears, bowed to the ground, and asked to receive a Protector-General. The Son of Heaven, because the Middle States had only just been settled and the northern frontier had not yet submitted, returned all their attending sons and rewarded them richly. At this time Xian relied on the strength of his troops and wished to annex the Western Regions; his attacks became still more severe. When the various states heard that the Protector-General would not go out and that their attending sons had all been returned, they were greatly worried and afraid. They then sent an urgent message to the governor of Dunhuang, asking that the attending sons be kept as a display to Shache, saying that if the attending sons were seen to be detained and the Protector-General would soon go out, they hoped Xian's troops might for the moment cease. Pei Zun reported the circumstances, and the Son of Heaven allowed it.
In the twenty-second year, Xian learned that the Protector-General was not coming. He then sent a letter to An, king of Shanshan, ordering him to cut off the road communicating with Han. An did not accept the order and killed Xian's envoy. Xian was greatly angry and sent troops to attack Shanshan. An met him in battle, was defeated, and fled into the mountains. Xian killed and seized more than a thousand people and left. That winter, Xian again attacked and killed the king of Qiuci, and then annexed his state. The attending sons of Shanshan, Yanqi, and the other states had long remained at Dunhuang. In sorrow and homesickness, they all fled back. The king of Shanshan submitted a letter, wishing to send a son again to attend and again requesting a Protector-General. If the Protector-General did not go out, he was truly pressed by the Xiongnu. The Son of Heaven replied: "At present envoys and great armies cannot yet be sent out. If the strength of the various states does not follow their hearts, east, west, south, and north are all open to them." Thereupon Shanshan and Cheshi again attached themselves to the Xiongnu, and Xian became still more violent.
The king of Guise, considering that his state was distant, then killed Xian's envoy. Xian attacked and destroyed him, and established Sijian, a noble of that state, as king of Guise. Xian also established his own son Ziluo as king of Qiuci. Because Ziluo was young, Xian divided Qiuci and made it the state of Wulei, moved Sijian to be king of Wulei, and again made a noble king of Guise. After several years, the people of Qiuci together killed Ziluo and Sijian and sent envoys to the Xiongnu, again requesting that a king be established. The Xiongnu established Shendu, a noble of Qiuci, as king of Qiuci, and from this Qiuci belonged to the Xiongnu.
Because Dawan's tribute and taxes had diminished, Xian personally led several tens of thousands of troops from the various states to attack Dawan. Yanliu, king of Dawan, came out to submit. Xian then led him back to his state and moved Qiaosaiti, king of Kumi, to be king of Dawan. But Kangju repeatedly attacked him. After Qiaosaiti had been in the state for more than a year, he fled back. Xian again made him king of Kumi and sent Yanliu back to Dawan, making him present tribute as usual. Xian also moved Yulin, king of Yutian, to be king of Ligui and established Yulin's younger brother Weishi as king of Yutian. After more than a year, Xian suspected that the various states wished to rebel. He summoned Weishi and the kings of Kumi, Gumo, and Zihe and killed them all. He did not again set up kings, but only sent generals to garrison and guard their states. Rong, son of Weishi, fled and surrendered to Han and was enfeoffed as Marquis Who Guards the Covenant.
Junde, the Shache general in Yutian, was violent and cruel, and the common people suffered from him. In the third year of Yongping under Emperor Ming, the great man Dumo went out from the city and saw a wild boar. He wished to shoot it, but the boar then spoke, saying: "Do not shoot me. I will kill Junde for you." Because of this, Dumo together with his brothers killed Junde. But the great man Xiumoba, together with the Han man Han Rong and others, killed Dumo and his brothers, set himself up as king of Yutian, and again joined with the people of Kumi to attack and kill the Shache general who was in Pishan. Then he drew off his troops and returned.
Thereupon Xian sent his crown prince and his chancellor to lead twenty thousand troops of the various states and attack Xiumoba. Ba met them in battle. The Shache troops were defeated and fled, and more than ten thousand were killed. Xian again mobilized several tens of thousands of men from the various states and personally led them to attack Xiumoba. Ba again defeated him, cutting down and killing more than half. Xian escaped alone and fled back to his state. Xiumoba advanced and surrounded Shache, but he died after being hit by a stray arrow, and the troops withdrew.
Suyu Le, chancellor of Yutian, and others together established Guangde, son of Xiumoba's elder brother, as king. The Xiongnu and the various states of Qiuci jointly attacked Shache but could not take it. Guangde took advantage of Shache's exhaustion and sent his younger brother Ren, marquis who assisted the state, to lead troops and attack Xian. Xian, after repeated warfare, sent an envoy and made peace with Guangde. Earlier, Guangde's father had been detained in Shache for several years. Thereupon Xian returned his father, gave him a daughter in marriage, and joined with him as brothers. Guangde drew off his troops and left.
The next year, the Shache chancellor Qieyun and others, troubled by Xian's arrogance and violence, secretly plotted to turn the city over and surrender to Yutian. Guangde, king of Yutian, then led thirty thousand troops of the various states and attacked Shache. Xian defended the city and sent an envoy to tell Guangde: "I returned your father to you and gave you a wife. Why have you come to attack me?" Guangde said: "The king is the father of my wife. We have long not seen each other. I ask that each of us take two attendants and meet outside the city to make covenant." Xian asked Qieyun about it. Qieyun said: "Guangde is your son-in-law and very close kin. You ought to go out and see him." Xian then went out lightly, and Guangde seized him. Qieyun and the others then admitted Yutian troops, captured Xian's wife and children, and annexed his state. They chained Xian and were going to bring him back; after more than a year they killed him.
When the Xiongnu heard that Guangde had destroyed Shache, they sent five generals to mobilize more than thirty thousand troops from fifteen states, including Yanqi, Yuli, and Qiuci, and surround Yutian. Guangde begged to surrender, gave his crown prince as hostage, and agreed to provide felt and floss each year. In winter, the Xiongnu again sent troops with Buju, Xian's hostage son, to summon him and establish him as king of Shache. Guangde again attacked and killed him, and instead established his younger brother Qili as king of Shache. This was the third year of Yuanhe under Emperor Zhang. At that time the chief clerk Ban Chao mobilized the troops of the various states to attack Shache and greatly defeated it. From this it then surrendered to Han. The affair is already fully set out in the biography of Ban Chao.
Shache lay northeast toward Shule.
The state of Shule was five thousand li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and ten thousand three hundred li from Luoyang. It governed twenty-one thousand households and more than thirty thousand men able to bear arms.
In the sixteenth year of Yongping under Emperor Ming, Jian, king of Qiuci, attacked and killed Cheng, king of Shule, and made Douti, left marquis of Qiuci, king of Shule. That winter, Han sent the army sima Ban Chao, who seized and bound Douti and established Zhong, elder brother's son of Cheng, as king of Shule. Later Zhong rebelled, and Chao attacked and beheaded him. The affair is already fully set out in Chao's biography.
In the Yuanchu period under Emperor An, Anguo, king of Shule, because his maternal uncle Chenpan had committed an offense, moved him to the Yuezhi, where the Yuezhi king loved him closely. Later Anguo died without sons. His mother held the government of the state and, together with the people of the state, established Yifu, son of Chenpan's full brother, as king of Shule. When Chenpan heard of it, he requested of the Yuezhi king: "Anguo has no son, and the seed people are faint and weak. If one is to establish someone of the mother's clan, I am Yifu's uncle. I ought to be king." The Yuezhi then sent troops to escort him back to Shule. The people of the state had long respected and loved Chenpan and also feared the Yuezhi. They then together seized Yifu's seal and cord, welcomed Chenpan, and established him as king. They instead made Yifu marquis of Pangao City under Pan. Later Shache rebelled from Yutian and became subject to Shule. Shule used this to become strong and therefore was able to stand as a rival state to Qiuci and Yutian.
In the second year of Yongjian under Emperor Shun, Chenpan sent envoys with tribute, and the emperor appointed Chenpan Han grand commandant and his elder brother's son Chenxun sima who guarded the state. In the fifth year, Chenpan sent an attending son together with envoys from Dawan and Shache to the imperial gate with tribute. In the second year of Yangjia, Chenpan again presented lions and humped cattle.
In the first year of Jianning under Emperor Ling, Yulie, king of Shule and Han grand commandant, was shot and killed while hunting by his youngest uncle Hede, and Hede set himself up as king. In the fifth year, Meng Tuo, governor of Liangzhou, sent the staff officer Ren She to lead five hundred Dunhuang troops. Together with Cao Kuan, sima of the Wuji commandants, and Zhang Yan, chief clerk of the Western Regions, he led Yanqi, Qiuci, and the Former and Later Divisions of Cheshi, more than thirty thousand men in all, to punish Shule. They attacked Zhenzhong City for more than forty days but could not take it, and they withdrew. After this the kings of Shule killed one another in succession, and the court also could not stop it.
Yanqi, Cheshi, and the Final Judgment
Northeast, by way of Weitou, Wensu, Gumo, and Qiuci, one arrived at Yanqi.
The king of the state of Yanqi dwelt at Nanhe City. Northward it was eight hundred li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt; eastward it was eight thousand two hundred li from Luoyang. It had fifteen thousand households, fifty-two thousand people, and more than twenty thousand men able to bear arms. The state had great mountains on all four sides and was connected with Qiuci. The roads were difficult and narrow and easy to guard. Sea water curved into the interior of the four mountains and encircled the city for more than thirty li.
At the end of Yongping, Yanqi and Qiuci together attacked and killed the Protector-General Chen Mu and the deputy commandant Guo Xun, killing more than two thousand officials and soldiers. In the sixth year of Yongyuan, the Protector-General Ban Chao mobilized troops of the various states to punish Yanqi, Weixu, Yuli, and the Mountain State. He then beheaded the kings of Yanqi and Yuli, sent their heads to the capital, and hung them at the barbarian hostel. Chao then established Yuanmeng, left marquis of Yanqi, as king. Yuli, Weixu, and the Mountain State all had their kings established anew.
By the time of Emperor An, the Western Regions had turned away and rebelled. In the Yanguang period, Yong, son of Ban Chao, became chief clerk of the Western Regions and again punished and settled the various states. Yuanmeng, together with Yuli and Weixu, would not surrender. In the second year of Yongjian, Yong and Zhang Lang, governor of Dunhuang, attacked and defeated them. Yuanmeng then sent a son to the imperial gate with tribute.
The state of Pulei dwelt at Shuyu Valley west of the Tianshan. Southeastward it was one thousand two hundred ninety li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and ten thousand four hundred ninety li from Luoyang. It had more than eight hundred households, more than two thousand people, and more than seven hundred men able to bear arms. The people lived in tents, followed water and grass, and had some knowledge of farming. They had cattle, horses, camels, sheep, and other livestock. They could make bows and arrows. The state produced good horses.
Pulei had originally been a large state. Earlier, when the Western Regions belonged to the Xiongnu, its king offended the chanyu. The chanyu was angry and moved more than six thousand Pulei people inward to A'e land in the Xiongnu's right division. Because of this they were called the state of A'e. It was more than ninety days by horse south of the Later Division of Cheshi. The population was poor and weak; some fled and escaped among the mountain valleys, and therefore remained and became a state.
The state of Yizhi dwelt in the land of Pulei. It had more than one thousand households, more than three thousand people, and more than one thousand men able to bear arms. Its people were brave, fierce, and dared to fight; they made raiding and plundering their occupation. All wore their hair loose, followed livestock in pursuit of water and grass, and did not know farming. What they produced was all the same as Pulei.
The state of Eastern Qiemi was eight hundred li east of the place where the chief clerk dwelt and nine thousand two hundred fifty li from Luoyang. It had more than three thousand households, more than five thousand people, and more than two thousand men able to bear arms. The people lived in tents, followed water and grass, and did some farming. What they produced was also the same as Pulei. Their dwelling place was not fixed.
The Former King of Cheshi dwelt at Jiaohe City. The river water divided and flowed around the city; therefore it was called Jiaohe, "Joined Rivers." It was eighty li from Liuzhong, where the chief clerk dwelt, and nine thousand one hundred twenty li east from Luoyang. It governed more than fifteen hundred households, more than four thousand people, and two thousand men able to bear arms.
The Later King dwelt at Wutu Valley, five hundred li from the place where the chief clerk dwelt and nine thousand six hundred twenty li from Luoyang. He governed more than four thousand households, more than fifteen thousand people, and more than three thousand men able to bear arms.
The Former and Later Divisions, together with Eastern Qiemi, Beilu, Pulei, and Yizhi, made the six states of Cheshi. To the north they bordered the Xiongnu. The Former Division communicated westward with Yanqi by the northern road; the Later Division communicated westward with Wusun.
In the twenty-first year of Jianwu, Cheshi, together with Shanshan and Yanqi, sent sons to attend. Guangwu sent them back, and they then attached themselves and became subject to the Xiongnu. In the sixteenth year of Yongping under Emperor Ming, Han took Yiwulu and opened communication with the Western Regions; Cheshi first again belonged inwardly. The Xiongnu sent troops to attack it, and it again surrendered to the northern captives. In the second year of Yongyuan under Emperor He, the great general Dou Xian broke the Northern Xiongnu. Cheshi was shaken with fear. The Former and Later kings each sent sons with tribute to attend, and both were bestowed seals, cords, gold, and silk.
In the eighth year, Suo Jun, Wuji commandant, wished to depose Zhuodi, king of the Later Division, and establish Xizhi, Marquis Who Breaks the Captives. Zhuodi was resentful because Weibida, the Former King, had greatly betrayed him. He then rebelled and attacked Weibida, capturing his wife and children. The next year, Han sent Wang Lin, chief clerk who led troops, to mobilize troops of the six Liangzhou commanderies together with more than twenty thousand Qiang, captive, and Hu men in order to punish Zhuodi. He took more than one thousand heads and captives. Zhuodi entered the Northern Xiongnu; Han troops pursued and attacked him and beheaded him, then established Nongqi, Zhuodi's younger brother, as king.
In the first year of Yongning, Junjiu, the Later King, and his mother Shama rebelled, killing the sima of the Later Division and the acting officer of Dunhuang. In the fourth year of Yanguang under Emperor An, the chief clerk Ban Yong attacked Junjiu, greatly defeated him, and beheaded him.
In the first year of Yongjian under Emperor Shun, Yong led Jianu, son of Nongqi the Later King, and Bahua and others, mobilized picked troops, and attacked the Northern Captive Huyan King, defeating him. Yong then memorialized to establish Jianu as Later King and Bahua as Marquis Close to Han of the Later Division.
In the summer of the third year of Yangjia, the sima of the Later Division of Cheshi led Jianu and others, fifteen hundred men, in a surprise attack on the Northern Xiongnu at Changwulu Valley. They destroyed their tent settlements, cut off several hundred heads, and captured the chanyu's mother, his younger aunt, and several hundred women, more than one hundred thousand cattle and sheep, more than one thousand carts, and very many weapons and implements.
In the spring of the fourth year, the Northern Xiongnu Huyan King led troops to invade the Later Division. Because the six states of Cheshi lay close to the northern captives and served as shield and defense for the Western Regions, the emperor ordered the governor of Dunhuang to mobilize troops of the various states, together with the officer of Yumen Pass and the sima of Yiwu, making six thousand three hundred cavalry in all, to save it. They made a surprise attack on the northern captives at Le Mountain, but the Han army was unsuccessful. In autumn, the Huyan King again led two thousand men to attack the Later Division and broke it.
In the first year of Yuanjia under Emperor Huan, the Huyan King led more than three thousand cavalry to raid Yiwu. Mao Kai, sima of Yiwu, sent five hundred officials and soldiers to fight the Huyan King east of Pulei Sea; all were wiped out. The Huyan King then attacked the Yiwu garrison city. In summer, Sima Da, governor of Dunhuang, was sent to lead more than four thousand officials and soldiers from Dunhuang, Jiuquan, and the Zhangye dependent state to rescue it. They went out beyond the frontier to Pulei Sea. When the Huyan King heard of this, he withdrew. The Han army returned without achievement.
In the first year of Yongxing, Aluoduo, king of the Later Division of Cheshi, and Yan Hao, Wubu scout officer, were not on good terms. Aluoduo therefore became angry and rebellious, attacked and surrounded the Han garrison-farm city of Qiangu, and killed and wounded officials and soldiers. Tanzhe, scout officer of the Later Division, led the remaining people in rebelling against Aluoduo and went to the Han officials in surrender. Aluoduo was pressed hard and led his mother, wife, and children, with more than one hundred cavalry, fleeing into the Northern Xiongnu. Song Liang, governor of Dunhuang, memorialized to establish Beijun, a hostage son of the former Later King Junjiu, as king of the Later Division.
Later Aluoduo returned from among the Xiongnu and contested the state with Beijun, gathering rather many of his state people. Yan Xiang, Wu commandant, worried that he would summon and draw in the northern captives and bring disorder to the Western Regions. He therefore opened communication, gave notices, and promised to restore him as king. Aluoduo then went to Xiang and surrendered. Thereupon the seal and cord bestowed on Beijun were recovered and taken away, and Aluoduo was established again as king. Beijun was then brought back to Dunhuang. Three hundred tent households of the Later Division were separated and made subject to him in service, and he ate their taxes. "Tent" is like the household count in the Middle States.
The discussion says: Records of the customs and lands of the Western Regions were unheard in former antiquity. In the Han age, Zhang Qian carried the strategy of drawing the distant to court, and Ban Chao roused the ambition to win enfeoffment as marquis. In the end they were able to establish merit in the far west and bind foreign regions into submission. Wherever the awe of troops subdued, and wherever wealth and gifts cherished and enticed, all presented local rarities and offered beloved hostages, bare-headed and crawling on their elbows, facing east to court the Son of Heaven.
Therefore the offices of Wu and Ji were established and their affairs divided among them; the command of the Protector-General was set up to command their authority as a whole. Those first tamed were rewarded with gold and bestowed turtle-knob cords; those who submitted later had their heads bound and their foreheads bloodied at the northern gate. Garrison farms were established in rich and fertile fields, and postal relays were arrayed on crucial roads. Galloping orders and running relays did not cease through seasons and months; Hu merchants and traveling traders daily knocked at the foot of the frontier.
After this, Gan Ying reached Tiaozhi, passed through Anxi, and came to the western sea to gaze toward Da Qin. From Yumen and Yang Pass it was more than forty thousand li, and there was nothing he did not fully traverse. As to the superiority or thinness of their borders, customs, nature, and wisdom; the categories and kinds of products carried from them; the sources of rivers, barriers, and mountain ranges; the passages and separations of cool and hot seasons; roads that climbed mountains, crossed valley scaffolds, went by rope, and crossed sands; and regions of Body-Heat, Headache, wind disasters, and ghostly hardships, all were written down with their real forms and carefully sought out at their roots.
As for the divine transformations of the Buddha's Way, they arose from Shendu, yet the geographical records of the two Han had no mention of them. Zhang Qian only recorded that the land was often hot and damp and that people rode elephants in battle. Although Ban Yong listed their service to the Buddha and their refusal to kill and attack, he transmitted and described nothing of the achievements of its refined writings, good law, guidance, and transmission. I have heard later accounts of it: that its state is as flourishing as the central lands, that harmonious vital breath gathers there, that it is a place where spiritual sages collect and where worthy and fine men arise; that its divine traces and strange marvels are in principle beyond the human region, and that its clear responses and verifications are matters outside heaven. If Qian and Chao heard nothing of this, was it because its Way was closed in the former cycle and its allotted time opened only in a later age? If not, why would the exaggeration of marvels be so extreme?
In Han, the king Ying of Chu first made the sacrifices of fasting and purification flourish, and Emperor Huan again cultivated the ornaments of the Flower Canopy. Was it that the subtle meaning had not yet been translated, and only the divine and numinous side was known? Examining its teachings on clearing the mind and releasing burdens, and its doctrine that sends away both emptiness and being, it is a stream of the books of the Way. Moreover, loving humanity and hating killing, removing what is worn out and honoring goodness, are the reasons why worthy and accomplished gentlemen often loved its law. Yet it delights in the great and does not accord with the classics; its strange deceptions have no end. Even Zou Yan's arguments about heaven and Zhuang Zhou's discourse on the snail horns would still not be enough to cover one ten-thousandth of it. Further, spirits arise and perish, and causes and recompenses seek one another; it is like being bright and yet dark. Therefore many comprehending men are perplexed by it. Probably there is no single method for guiding customs; fitting things requires different meetings. If one takes from them what returns to the same end and sets aside the doubtful sayings, then the great Way is open.
The appraisal says: Far off are the western Hu, a region outside the heaven of our order. Their local products are beautiful treasures; the people's nature is unrestrained and empty. They do not follow Hua ritual, and they have no canons or books. Were it not for the faint presence of the divine Way, what would there be to grieve over, what would there be to hold them to?
Colophon
This Good Works Translation was prepared for the Scythian shelf by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. The English is an independent rendering from the source-language Chinese, with existing English displays and translations used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.
Compiled and formatted for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.
🌲
Source Text: 後漢書 卷八十八 西域傳
Classical Chinese source text from Fan Ye's Hou Han Shu, chapter 88, the Western Regions annals. Presented here for reference, study, and verification alongside the English translation above.
Reopening the Western Regions
武帝時，西域內屬，有三十六國。漢為置使者、校尉領護之。宣帝改曰都護。元帝又置戊己二校尉，屯田於車師前王庭。哀平閒，自相分割為五十五國。王莽篡位，貶易侯王，由是西域怨叛，與中國遂絕，並復役屬匈奴。匈奴斂稅重刻，諸國不堪命，建武中，皆遣使求內屬，願請都護。光武以天下初定，未遑外事，竟不許之。會匈奴衰弱，莎車王賢誅滅諸國，賢死之後，遂更相攻伐。小宛、精絕、戎廬、且末為鄯善所并。渠勒、皮山為于窴所統，悉有其地。郁立、單桓、孤胡、烏貪訾離為車師所滅。後其國並復立。永平中，北虜乃脅諸國共寇河西郡縣，城門晝閉。十六年，明帝乃命將帥，北征匈奴，取伊吾盧地，置宜禾都尉以屯田，遂通西域，于窴諸國皆遣子入侍。西域自絕六十五載，乃復通焉。明年，始置都護、戊己校尉。及明帝崩，焉耆、龜茲攻沒都護陳睦，悉覆其眾，匈奴、車師圍戊己校尉。建初元年春，酒泉太守段彭大破車師於交河城。章帝不欲疲敝中國以事夷狄，乃迎還戊己校尉，不復遣都護。二年，復罷屯田伊吾，匈奴因遣兵守伊吾地。時軍司馬班超留于窴，綏集諸國。和帝永元元年，大將軍竇憲大破匈奴。二年，憲因遣副校尉閻槃將二千餘騎掩擊伊吾，破之。三年，班超遂定西域，因以超為都護，居龜茲。復置戊己校尉，領兵五百人，居車師前部高昌壁，又置戊部候，居車師後部候城，相去五百里。六年，班超復擊破焉耆，於是五十餘國悉納質內屬。其條支、安息諸國至于海瀕四萬里外，皆重譯貢獻。九年，班超遣掾甘英窮臨西海而還。皆前世所不至，山經所未詳，莫不備其風土，傳其珍怪焉。於是遠國蒙奇、兜勒皆來歸服，遣使貢獻。
及孝和晏駕，西域背畔。安帝永初元年，頻攻圍都護任尚、段禧等，朝廷以其險遠，難相應赴，詔罷都護。自此遂棄西域。北匈奴即復收屬諸國，共為邊寇十餘歲。敦煌太守曹宗患其暴害，元初六年，乃上遣行長史索班，將千餘人屯伊吾以招撫之，於是車師前王及鄯善王來降。數月，北匈奴復率車師後部王共攻沒班等，遂擊走其前王。鄯善逼急，求救於曹宗，宗因此請出兵擊匈奴，報索班之恥，復欲進取西域。鄧太后不許，但令置護西域副校尉，居敦煌，復部營兵三百人，羈縻而已。其後北虜連與車師入寇河西，朝廷不能禁，議者因欲閉玉門、陽關，以絕其患。
，皆安帝末班勇所記云。
西域內屬諸國，東西六千餘里，南北千餘里，東極玉門、陽關，西至蔥領。其東北與匈奴、烏孫相接。南北有大山，中央有河。其南山東出金城，與漢南山屬焉。其河有兩源，一出蔥領東流，一出于窴南山下北流，與蔥領河合，東注蒲昌海。蒲昌海一名鹽澤，去玉門三百餘里。
自敦煌西出玉門、陽關，涉鄯善，北通伊吾千餘里，自伊吾北通車師前部高昌壁千二百里，自高昌壁北通後部金滿城五百里。此其西域之門戶也，故戊己校尉更互屯焉。伊吾地宜五穀、桑麻、蒲萄。其北又有柳中，皆膏腴之地。故漢常與匈奴爭車師、伊吾，以制西域焉。
自鄯善踰蔥領出西諸國，有兩道。傍南山北，陂河西行至莎車，為南道。南道西踰蔥領，則出大月氏、安息之國也。自車師前王庭隨北山，陂河西行至疏勒，為北道。北道西踰蔥領，出大宛、康居、奄蔡焉耆。
The Southern Road to Da Qin
出玉門，經鄯善、且末、精絕三千餘里至拘彌。
拘彌國居寧彌城，去長史所居柳中四千九百里，去洛陽萬二千八百里。領戶二千一百七十三，口七千二百五十一，勝兵千七百六十人。
順帝永建四年，于窴王放前殺拘彌王興，自立其子為拘彌王，而遣使者貢獻於漢。敦煌太守徐由上求討之，帝赦于窴罪，令歸拘彌國，放前不肯。陽嘉元年，徐由遣疏勒王臣槃發二萬人擊于窴，破之，斬首數百級，放兵大掠，更立興宗人成國為拘彌王而還。至靈帝熹平四年，于窴王安國攻拘彌，大破之，殺其王，死者甚眾，戊己校尉、西域長史各發兵輔立拘彌侍子定興為王。時人眾裁有千口。其國西接于窴三百九十里。
于窴國居西城，去長史所居五千三百里，去洛陽萬一千七百里。領戶三萬二千，口八萬三千，勝兵三萬餘人。
建武末，莎車王賢強盛，攻并于窴，徙其王俞林為驪歸王。明帝永平中，于窴將休莫霸反莎車，自立為于窴王。休莫霸死，兄子廣德立，後遂滅莎車，其國轉盛。從精絕西北至疏勒十三國皆服從。而鄯善王亦始強盛。自是南道自蔥領以東，唯此二國為大。
順帝永建六年，于窴王放前遣侍子詣闕貢獻。元嘉元年，長史趙評在于窴病癰死，評子迎喪，道經拘彌。拘彌王成國與于窴王建素有隙，乃語評子云：「于窴王令胡醫持毒藥著創中，故致死耳。」評子信之，還入塞，以告敦煌太守馬達。明年，以王敬代為長史，達令敬隱覈其事。敬先過拘彌，成國復說云：「于窴國人欲以我為王，今可因此罪誅建，于窴必服矣。」敬貪立功名，且受成國之說，前到于窴，設供具請建，而陰圖之。或以敬謀告建，建不信，曰：「我無罪，王長史何為欲殺我？」旦日，建從官屬數十人詣敬。坐定，建起行酒，敬叱左右執之，吏士並無殺建意，官屬悉得突走。時成國主簿秦牧隨敬在會，持刀出曰：「大事已定，何為復疑？」即前斬建。于窴侯將輸僰等遂會兵攻敬，敬持建頭上樓宣告曰：「天子使我誅建耳。」于窴侯將遂焚營舍，燒殺吏士，上樓斬敬，懸首於巿。輸僰欲自立為王，國人殺之，而立建子安國焉。馬達聞之，欲將諸郡兵出塞擊于窴，桓帝不聽，徵達還，而以宋亮代為敦煌太守。亮到，開募于窴，令自斬輸僰。時輸僰死已經月，乃斷死人頭送敦煌，而不言其狀。亮後知其詐，而竟不能出兵。于窴恃此遂驕。
自于窴經皮山，至西夜、子合、德若焉。
西夜國一名漂沙，去洛陽萬四千四百里。戶二千五百，口萬餘，勝兵三千人。地生白草，有毒，國人煎以為藥，傅箭鏃，所中即死。漢書中誤云西夜、子合是一國，今各自有王。
子合國居呼鞬谷。去疏勒千里。領戶三百五十，口四千，勝兵千人。
德若國領戶百餘，口六百七十，勝兵三百五十人。東去長史居三千五百三十里，去洛陽萬二千一百五十里，與子合相接。其俗皆同。
自皮山西南經烏秅，涉懸度，歷罽賓，六十餘日行至烏弋山離國，地方數千里，時改名排持。
復西南馬行百餘日至條支。
條支國城在山上，周回四十餘里。臨西海，海水曲環其南及東北，三面路絕，唯西北隅通陸道。土地暑溼，出師子、犀牛、封牛、孔雀、大雀。大雀其卵如甕。
轉北而東，復馬行六十餘日至安息。後役屬條支，為置大將，監領諸小城焉。
安息國居和櫝城，去洛陽二萬五千里。北與康居接，南與烏弋山離接。地方數千里，小城數百，戶口勝兵最為殷盛。其東界木鹿城，號為小安息，去洛陽二萬里。
章帝章和元年，遣使獻師子、符拔。符拔形似麟而無角。和帝永元九年，都護班超遣甘英使大秦，抵條支。臨大海欲度，而安息西界船人謂英曰：「海水廣大，往來者逢善風三月乃得度，若遇遲風，亦有二歲者，故入海人皆齎三歲糧。海中善使人思土戀慕，數有死亡者。」英聞之乃止。十三年，安息王滿屈復獻師子及條支大鳥，時謂之安息雀。
自安息西行三千四百里至阿蠻國。從阿蠻西行三千六百里至斯賓國。從斯賓南行度河，又西南至于羅國九百六十里，安息西界極矣。自此南乘海，乃通大秦。其土多海西珍奇異物焉。
大秦國一名犁鞬，以在海西，亦云海西國。地方數千里，有四百餘城。小國役屬者數十。以石為城郭。列置郵亭，皆堊塈之。有松柏諸木百草。人俗力田作，多種樹蠶桑。皆髡頭而衣文繡，乘輜軿白蓋小車，出入擊鼓，建旌旗幡幟。
所居城邑，周圜百餘里。城中有五宮，相去各十里。宮室皆以水精為柱，食器亦然。其王日游一宮，聽事五日而後遍。常使一人持囊隨王車，人有言事者，即以書投囊中，王至宮發省，理其枉直。各有官曹文書。置三十六將，皆會議國事。其王無有常人，皆簡立賢者。國中災異及風雨不時，輒廢而更立，受放者甘黜不怨。其人民皆長大平正，有類中國，故謂之大秦。
土多金銀奇寶，有夜光璧、明月珠、駭雞犀、珊瑚、虎魄、琉璃、琅玕、朱丹、青碧。刺金縷繡，織成金縷罽、雜色綾。作黃金塗、火浣布。又有細布，或言水羊毳，野蠶繭所作也。合會諸香，煎其汁以為蘇合。凡外國諸珍異皆出焉。
以金銀為錢，銀錢十當金錢一。與安息、天竺交巿於海中，利有十倍。其人質直，巿無二價。穀食常賤，國用富饒。鄰國使到其界首者，乘驛詣王都，至則給以金錢。其王常欲通使於漢，而安息欲以漢繒綵與之交市，故遮閡不得自達。至桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外獻象牙、犀角、玳瑁，始乃一通焉。其所表貢，並無珍異，疑傳者過焉。
或云其國西有弱水、流沙，近西王母所居處，幾於日所入也。漢書云「從條支西行二百餘日，近日所入」，則與今書異矣。前世漢使皆自烏弋以還，莫有至條支者也。又云「從安息陸道繞海北行出海西至大秦，人庶連屬，十里一亭，三十里一置，終無盜賊寇警。而道多猛虎、師子，遮害行旅，不百餘人，齎兵器，輒為所食」。又言「有飛橋數百里可度海北」。諸國所生奇異玉石諸物，譎怪多不經，故不記云。
Kushan, India, and Alanliao
大月氏國居藍氏城，西接安息，四十九日行，東去長史所居六千五百三十七里，去洛陽萬六千三百七十里。戶十萬，口四十萬，勝兵十餘萬人。
初，月氏為匈奴所滅，遂遷於大夏，分其國為休密、雙靡、貴霜、驸頓、都密，凡五部臓侯。後百餘歲，貴霜臓侯丘就卻攻滅四臓侯，自立為王，國號貴霜王。侵安息，取高附地。又滅濮達、罽賓，悉有其國。丘就卻年八十餘死，子閻膏珍代為王。復滅天竺，置將一人監領之。月氏自此之後，最為富盛，諸國稱之皆曰貴霜王。漢本其故號，言大月氏云。
高附國在大月氏西南，亦大國也。其俗似天竺，而弱，易服。善賈販，內富於財。所屬無常，天竺、罽賓、安息三國強則得之，弱則失之，而未嘗屬月氏。漢書以為五臓侯數，非其實也。後屬安息。及月氏破安息，始得高附。
天竺國一名身毒，在月氏之東南數千里。俗與月氏同，而卑溼暑熱。其國臨大水。乘象而戰。其人弱於月氏，脩浮圖道，不殺伐，遂以成俗。從月氏、高附國以西，南至西海，東至磐起國，皆身毒之地。身毒有別城數百，城置長。別國數十，國置王。雖各小異，而俱以身毒為名，其時皆屬月氏。月氏殺其王而置將，令統其人。土出象、犀、玳瑁、金、銀、銅、鐵、鉛、錫，西與大秦通，有大秦珍物。又有細布、好毾卫、諸香、石蜜、胡椒、薑、黑鹽。
和帝時，數遣使貢獻，後西域反畔，乃絕。至桓帝延熹二年、四年，頻從日南徼外來獻。
世傳明帝夢見金人，長大，頂有光明，以問群臣。或曰：「西方有神，名曰佛，其形長丈六尺而黃金色。」帝於是遣使天竺問佛道法，遂於中國圖畫形像焉。楚王英始信其術，中國因此頗有奉其道者。後桓帝好神，數祀浮圖、老子，百姓稍有奉者，後遂轉盛。
東離國居沙奇城，在天竺東南三千餘里，大國也。其土氣、物類與天竺同。列城數十，皆稱王。大月氏伐之，遂臣服焉。男女皆長八尺，而怯弱。乘象、駱駝，往來鄰國。有寇，乘象以戰。
栗弋國屬康居。出名馬牛羊、蒲萄眾果，其土水美，故蒲萄酒特有名焉。
嚴國在奄蔡北，屬康居，出鼠皮以輸之。
奄蔡國改名阿蘭聊國，居地城，屬康居。土氣溫和，多楨松、白草。民俗衣服與康居同。
Shache and Shule
莎車國西經蒲犁、無雷至大月氏，東去洛陽萬九百五十里。
匈奴單于因王莽之亂，略有西域，唯莎車王延最強，不肯附屬。元帝時，嘗為侍子，長於京師，慕樂中國，亦復參其典法。常敕諸子，當世奉漢家，不可負也。天鳳五年，延死，謚忠武王，子康代立。
光武初，康率傍國拒匈奴，擁衛故都護吏士妻子千餘口，檄書河西，問中國動靜，自陳思慕漢家。建武五年，河西大將軍竇融乃承制立康為漢莎車建功懷德王、西域大都尉，五十五國皆屬焉
九年，康死，謚宣成王。弟賢代立，攻破拘彌、西夜國，皆殺其王，而立其兄康兩子為拘彌、西夜王。十四年，賢與鄯善王安並遣使詣闕貢獻，於是西域始通。蔥領以東諸國皆屬賢。十七年，賢復遣使奉獻，請都護。天子以問大司空竇融，以為賢父子兄弟相約事漢，款誠又至，宜加號位以鎮安之。帝乃因其使，賜賢西域都護印綬，及車旗黃金錦繡。敦煌太守裴遵上言：「夷狄不可假以大權，又令諸國失望。」詔書收還都護印綬，更賜賢以漢大將軍印綬。其使不肯易，遵迫奪之，賢由是始恨。而猶詐稱大都護，移書諸國，諸國悉服屬焉，號賢為單于。賢浸以驕橫，重求賦稅，數攻龜茲諸國，諸國愁懼。
二十一年冬，車師前王、鄯善、焉耆等十八國俱遣子入侍，獻其珍寶。及得見，皆流涕稽首，願得都護。天子以中國初定，北邊未服，皆還其侍子，厚賞賜之。是時賢自負兵強，欲并兼西域，攻擊益甚。諸國聞都護不出，而侍子皆還，大憂恐，乃與敦煌太守檄，願留侍子以示莎車，言侍子見留，都護尋出，冀且息其兵。裴遵以狀聞，天子許之。二十二年，賢知都護不至，遂遺鄯善王安書，令絕通漢道。安不納而殺其使。賢大怒，發兵攻鄯善。安迎戰，兵敗，亡入山中。賢殺略千餘人而去。其冬，賢復攻殺龜茲王，遂兼其國。鄯善、焉耆諸國侍子久留敦煌，愁思，皆亡歸。鄯善王上書，願復遣子入侍，更請都護。都護不出，誠迫於匈奴。天子報曰：「今使者大兵未能得出，如諸國力不從心，東西南北自在也。」於是鄯善、車師復附匈奴，而賢益橫。
媯塞王自以國遠，遂殺賢使者，賢擊滅之，立其國貴人駟鞬為媯塞王。賢又自立其子則羅為龜茲王。賢以則羅年少，乃分龜茲為烏壘國，徙駟鞬為烏壘王，又更以貴人為媯塞王。數歲，龜茲國人共殺則羅、駟鞬，而遣使匈奴，更請立王。匈奴立龜茲貴人身毒為龜茲王，龜茲由是屬匈奴。
賢以大宛貢稅滅少，自將諸國兵數萬人攻大宛，大宛王延留迎降，賢因將還國，徙拘彌王橋塞提為大宛王。而康居數攻之，橋塞提在國歲餘，亡歸，賢復以為拘彌王，而遣延留還大宛，使貢獻如常。賢又徙于窴王俞林為驪歸王，立其弟位侍為于窴王。歲餘，賢疑諸國欲畔，召位侍及拘彌、姑墨、子合王，盡殺之，不復置王，但遣將鎮守其國。位侍子戎亡降漢，封為守節侯。
莎車將君得在于窴暴虐，百姓患之。明帝永平三年，其大人都末出城，見野豕，欲射之。豕乃言曰：「無射我，我乃為汝殺君得。」都末因此即與兄弟共殺君得。而大人休莫霸復與漢人韓融等殺都末兄弟，自立為于窴王，復與拘彌國人攻殺莎車將在皮山者，引兵歸。於是賢遣其太子、國相，將諸國兵二萬人擊休莫霸，霸迎與戰，莎車兵敗走，殺萬餘人。賢復發諸國數萬人，自將擊休莫霸，霸復破之，斬殺過半，賢脫身走歸國。休莫霸進圍莎車，中流矢死，兵乃退。
于窴國相蘇榆勒等共立休莫霸兄子廣德為王。匈奴與龜茲諸國共攻莎車，不能下。廣德承莎車之敝，使弟輔國侯仁將兵攻賢。賢連被兵革，乃遣使與廣德和。先是廣德父拘在莎車數歲，於是賢歸其父，而以女妻之，結為昆弟，廣德引兵去。明年，莎車相且運等患賢驕暴，密謀反城降于窴。于窴王廣德乃將諸國兵三萬人攻莎車。賢城守，使使謂廣德曰：「我還汝父，與汝婦，汝來擊我何為？」廣德曰：「王，我婦父也，久不相見，願各從兩人會城外結盟。」賢以問且運，且運曰：「廣德女婿至親，宜出見之。」賢乃輕出，廣德遂執賢。而且運等因內于窴兵，虜賢妻子而并其國。鎖賢將歸，歲餘殺之。
匈奴聞廣德滅莎車，遣五將發焉耆、尉黎、龜茲十五國兵三萬餘人圍于窴，廣德乞降，以其太子為質，約歲給罽絮。冬，匈奴復遣兵將賢質子不居徵立為莎車王，廣德又攻殺之，更立其弟齊黎為莎車王，章帝元和三年。時長史班超發諸國兵擊莎車，大破之，由是遂降漢。事已具班超傳。
莎車東北至疏勒。
疏勒國去長史所居五千里，去洛陽萬三百里。領戶二萬一千，勝兵三萬餘人。
明帝永平十六年，龜茲王建攻殺疏勒王成，自以龜茲左侯兜題為疏勒王。冬，漢遣軍司馬班超劫縛兜題，而立成之兄子忠為疏勒王。忠後反畔，超擊斬之。事已具超傳。
安帝元初中，疏勒王安國以舅臣磐有罪，徙於月氏，月氏王親愛之。後安國死，無子，母持國政，與國人共立臣磐同產弟子遺腹為疏勒王。臣磐聞之，請月氏王曰：「安國無子，種人微弱，若立母氏，我乃遺腹叔父也，我當為王。」月氏乃遣兵送還疏勒。國人素敬愛臣磐，又畏憚月氏，即共奪遺腹印綬，迎臣磐立為王，更以遺腹為磐稿城侯。後莎車畔于窴，屬疏勒，疏勒以強，故得與龜茲、于窴為敵國焉。
順帝永建二年，臣磐遣使奉獻，帝拜臣磐為漢大都尉，兄子臣勳為守國司馬。五年，臣磐遣侍子與大宛、莎車使俱詣闕貢獻。陽嘉二年，臣磐復獻師子、封牛。至靈帝建寧元年，疏勒王漢大都尉於獵中為其季父和得所射殺，和得自立為王。五年，涼州刺史孟佗遣從事任涉將敦煌兵五百人，與戊己司馬曹寬、西域長史張晏，將焉耆、龜茲、車師前後部，合三萬餘人，討疏勒，攻楨中城，四十餘日不能下，引去。其後疏勒王連相殺害，朝廷亦不能禁。
Yanqi, Cheshi, and the Final Judgment
東北經尉頭、溫宿、姑墨、龜茲至焉耆。
焉耆國王居南河城，北去長史所居八百里，東去洛陽八千二百里。戶萬五千，口五萬二千，勝兵二萬餘人。其國四面有大山，與龜茲相連，道險阨易守。有海水曲入四山之內，周匝其城三十餘里。
永平末，焉耆與龜茲共攻沒都護陳睦、副校尉郭恂，殺吏士二千餘人。至永元六年，都護班超發諸國兵討焉耆、危須、尉黎、山國，遂斬焉耆、尉黎二王首，傳送京師，縣蠻夷邸。超乃立焉耆左侯元孟為王，尉黎、危須、山國皆更立其王。至安帝時，西域背畔。延光中，超子勇為西域長史，復討定諸國。元孟與尉黎、危須不降。永建二年，勇與敦煌太守張朗擊破之，元孟乃遣子詣闕貢獻。
蒲類國居天山西疏榆谷，東南去長史所居千二百九十里，去洛陽萬四百九十里。戶八百餘，口二千餘，勝兵七百餘人。廬帳而居，逐水草，頗知田作。有牛、馬、駱锓、羊畜。能作弓矢。國出好馬。
蒲類本大國也，前西域屬匈奴，而其王得罪單于，單于怒，徙蒲類人六千餘口，內之匈奴右部阿惡地，因號曰阿惡國。南去車師後部馬行九十餘日。人口貧羸，逃亡山谷閒，故留為國云。
移支國居蒲類地。戶千餘，口三千餘，勝兵千餘人。其人勇猛敢戰，以寇鈔為事。皆被髮，隨畜逐水草，不知田作。所出皆與蒲類同。
東且彌國東去長史所居八百里，去洛陽九千二百五十里。戶三千餘，口五千餘，勝兵二千餘人。廬帳居，逐水草，頗田作。其所出有亦與蒲類同。所居無常。
車師前王居交河城。河水分流繞城，故號交河。去長史所居柳中八十里，東去洛陽九千一百二十里。領戶千五百餘，口四千餘，勝兵二千人。
後王居務塗谷，去長史所居五百里，去洛陽九千六百二十里。領戶四千餘，口萬五千餘，勝兵三千餘人。
前後部及東且彌、卑陸、蒲類、移支，是為車師六國，北與匈奴接。前部西通焉耆北道，後部西通烏孫。
建武二十一年，與鄯善、焉耆遣子入侍，光武遣還之，乃附屬匈奴。明帝永平十六年，漢取伊吾盧，通西域，車師始復內屬。匈奴遣兵擊之，復降北虜。和帝永元二年，大將軍竇憲破北匈奴，車師震慴，前後王各遣子奉貢入侍，並賜印綬金帛。八年，戊己校尉索頵欲廢後部王涿鞮，立破虜侯細致。涿鞮忿前王尉卑大賣己，因反擊尉卑大，獲其妻子。明年，漢遣將兵長史王林，發涼州六郡兵及羌虜胡二萬餘人，以討涿鞮，獲首虜千餘人。涿鞮入北匈奴，漢軍追擊，斬之，立涿鞮弟農奇為王。至永寧元年，後王軍就及母沙麻反畔，殺後部司馬及敦煌行事。至安帝延光四年，長史班勇擊軍就，大破，斬之。
順帝永建元年，勇率後王農奇子加特奴及八滑等，發精兵擊北虜呼衍王，破之。勇於是上立加特奴為後王，八滑為後部親漢侯。陽嘉三年夏，車師後部司馬率加特奴等千五百人，掩擊北匈奴於閶吾陸谷，壞其廬落，斬數百級，獲單于母、季母及婦女數百人，牛羊十餘萬頭，車千餘兩，兵器什物甚眾。四年春，北匈奴呼衍王率兵侵後部，帝以車師六國接近北虜，為西域蔽扞，乃令敦煌太守發諸國兵，及玉門關候、伊吾司馬，合六千三百騎救之，掩擊北虜於勒山，漢軍不利。秋，呼衍王復將二千人攻後部，破之。桓帝元嘉元年，呼衍王將三千餘騎寇伊吾，伊吾司馬毛愷遣吏兵五百人於蒲類海東與呼衍王戰，悉為所沒，呼衍王遂攻伊吾屯城。夏，遣敦煌太守司馬達將敦煌、酒泉、張掖屬國吏士四千餘人救之，出塞至蒲類海，呼衍王聞而引去，漢軍無功而還。
永興元年，車師後部王阿羅多與戊部候嚴皓不相得，遂忿戾反畔，攻圍漢屯田且固城，殺傷吏士。後部候炭遮領餘人畔阿羅多詣漢吏降。阿羅多迫急，將其母妻子從百餘騎亡走北匈奴中，敦煌太守宋亮上立後部故王軍就質子卑君為後部王。後阿羅多復從匈奴中還，與卑君爭國，頗收其國人。戊校尉閻詳慮其招引北虜，將亂西域，乃開信告示，許復為王，阿羅多乃詣詳降。於是收奪所賜卑君印綬，更立阿羅多為王，仍將卑君還敦煌，以後部人三百帳別屬役之，食其稅。帳者，猶中國之戶數也。
論曰：西域風土之載，前古未聞也。漢世張騫懷致遠之略，班超奮封侯之志，終能立功西遐，羈服外域。自兵威之所肅服，財賂之所懷誘，莫不獻方奇，納愛質，露頂肘行，東向而朝天子。故設戊己之官，分任其事；建都護之帥，總領其權。先馴則賞継金而賜龜綬，後服則繫頭顙而釁北闕。立屯田於膏腴之野，列郵置於要害之路。馳命走驛，不絕於時月；商胡販客，日款於塞下。其後甘英乃抵條支而歷安息，臨西海以望大秦，拒玉門、陽關者四萬餘里，靡不周盡焉。若其境俗性智之優薄，產載物類之區品，川河領障之基源，氣節涼暑之通隔，梯山棧谷繩行沙度之道，身熱首痛風災鬼難之域，莫不備寫情形，審求根實。至於佛道神化，興自身毒，而二漢方志莫有稱焉。張騫但著地多暑溼，乘象而戰，班勇雖列其奉浮圖，不殺伐，而精文善法導達之功靡所傳述。余聞之後說也，其國則殷乎中土，玉燭和氣，靈聖之所集，賢懿之所挺生，神跡詭怪，則理絕人區，感驗明顯，則事出天外。而騫、超無聞者，豈其道閉往運，數開叔葉乎？不然，何誣異之甚也！漢自楚英始盛齋戒之祀，桓帝又修華蓋之飾。將微義未譯，而但神明之邪？詳其清心釋累之訓，空有兼遣之宗，道書之流也。且好仁惡殺，蠲敝崇善，所以賢達君子多愛其法焉。然好大不經，奇譎無已，雖鄒衍談天之辯，莊周蝸角之論，尚未足以概其萬一。又精靈起滅，因報相尋，若曉而昧者，故通人多惑焉。蓋導俗無方，適物異會，取諸同歸，措夫疑說，則大道通矣。
贊曰：纯矣西胡，天之外區。土物琛麗，人性淫虛。不率華禮，莫有典書。若微神道，何恤何拘。
Source Colophon
The source text was inspected from Chinese Text Project, Fan Ye, Hou Han Shu, Western Regions annals, using the on-disk source capture and the companion archival source-text page for this project. The English rendering above presents the unified source chapter in English.
🌲