Good Works Translation from Volume 198

This Good Works Translation renders the local Jiu Tang Shu Western Rong source body from Classical Chinese into English.

For the Scythian shelf, this is Tang frontier evidence for the Anxi horizon, Gaochang, Tuyuhun, the Tarim kingdoms, Kang and the Zhaowu world, Persia, Fulin, Dashi, and the political cost of distant garrisons.

The Classical Chinese source text is printed below the translation.

Translation

The State of Nipoluo

The state of Nipoluo lies west of Tibet. Its people cut the hair level with the eyebrows. They pierce the ears and widen them with bamboo tubes and ox horn; when the ornaments hang down to the shoulders they consider this beautiful. They eat with the hands and do not use spoons or chopsticks. Their utensils are all of copper. There are many merchants and little farming. They use copper as money: on the face is a human figure, on the back a horse or ox, and there is no hole through the coin. For clothing they cover the body with a single breadth of cloth. Each day they wash several times. Their houses are made of planks, and the walls are all carved and painted.

Their custom values gambling games. They like to blow conches and beat drums. They have some understanding of calculating fullness and emptiness and are also familiar with calendrical methods. They serve five heavenly gods, carving stone images of them. Each day they bathe the gods with clear water and boil sheep for sacrifice. Their king, Naling Tipo, wears pearls, glass, mother-of-pearl, coral, amber, and necklaces. From his ears hang gold hooks and jade cases. He carries a jewel-mounted dagger and sits on a lion couch. Flowers are scattered and incense is burned in his hall. His great ministers and attendants all sit on the ground, and several hundred armed men stand in ranks beside him.

Inside the palace is a seven-storied tower covered with copper tiles. The railings, sills, pillars, and beams are all adorned with jewels. From each of the four corners of the tower hangs a copper trough. Beneath each trough is a gold dragon. Water is driven up the tower and poured into the troughs; it comes out through the mouths of the dragons like flying springs. Naling Tipo's father had been usurped by his uncle. Naling Tipo fled outside in danger; Tibet received him, restored him to his position, and thereafter he became attached to Tibet.

During the Zhenguan period, Li Yibiao, assistant in the Chamberlain for Palace Revenues, went as envoy to India and passed through this state on the road. Naling Tipo saw him and was delighted. He went out with Yibiao to view the pool of Aji Polichi. It was more than twenty paces around, and its water was always boiling. Even when floods and torrents gathered violently, enough to scorch stone and melt metal, it never increased or decreased. If an object was thrown into it, smoke and flame immediately rose. A cauldron could be hung over it, and food would be cooked in a moment. Later, when Wang Xuance was plundered by India, Nipoluo sent cavalry and, together with Tibet, had merit in breaking India. In the second Yonghui year, its king Shili Naliantuoluo again sent envoys to court with tribute.

The Dangxiang Qiang

The Dangxiang Qiang live in the old land of Xizhi and are a separate kind of the Western Qiang of Han. After Wei and Jin, the Western Qiang were weak. Some became subjects of China; some fled into the mountains and wilderness. After the Zhou house destroyed Dangchang and Dengzhi, the Dangxiang began to grow strong. Their borders reach Songzhou in the east, join the Yabghu in the west, mix with the Chunsang, Misang, and other Qiang in the south, and link with Tuyuhun in the north. They live among mountains and valleys, stretching crosswise for three thousand li.

Each surname makes its own division and settlement. Within a single surname it is again divided into smaller settlements. The larger have more than ten thousand cavalry; the smaller have several thousand. They do not belong to one another. There are the Xifeng, Feiting, Wangli, Pochao, Yeci, Fangdang, Miqin, and Tuoba clans; the Tuoba are the strongest. Their custom is settled residence, with houses that have beams. The houses are covered by woven yak tails and sheep wool, changed once each year. Their custom values war. They have no laws, commands, taxes, or labor service. Many of the people live long, to a hundred fifty or sixty years.

They do not attend to production and livelihood. They like theft and plunder, and they invade and rob one another. They especially value revenge. If an enemy has not yet been found, the avenger must leave his hair loose, his face dirty, his feet bare, and eat coarse vegetable food; only after beheading the enemy does he return to ordinary life. Men and women alike wear fur and coarse wool and also cover themselves with large felt. They raise yaks, horses, donkeys, and sheep for food. They do not know sowing or reaping, and the land has none of the five grains. The climate is windy and cold. Grass begins to grow in the fifth month, and frost and snow fall in the eighth. They obtain barley from other borders and ferment it to make ale.

They marry stepmothers, paternal aunts by marriage, elder brothers' wives, and the wives of sons and younger brothers; in impurity and incest they are the worst among the several alien peoples. Yet they do not marry within the same surname. When the old die, they say they have completed the years given by Heaven, and the kin do not weep. When the young die, they call it an untimely wrong and then mourn them. When a person dies they burn the corpse, calling it fire burial. They have no writing, but observe grasses and trees to mark the seasons. Once in three years they gather together and kill cattle and sheep to sacrifice to Heaven. From Zhou through Sui, whether rebelling or coming to court, they were a constant border trouble.

In the third Zhenguan year, Zheng Yuanshu, governor of South Huizhou, sent envoys to summon and instruct them. Their chieftain Xifeng Bulai brought his whole division in submission. Taizong sent a sealed letter to comfort and settle him. Bulai then came to court, where feasting and gifts were very generous. His land was made Guizhou, and Bulai was appointed its prefect. He also asked to lead his division in an attack on Tuyuhun. Afterward the chieftains of the several surnames successively led their settlements inward in submission. They asked to be registered as households. Taizong comforted them generously, made their lands Ju, Feng, Yan, and Yuan prefectures, and appointed each of their leaders prefect.

There was a Qiang chieftain, Tuoba Chici, who had at first been subject to Tuyuhun and was very close to Fuyun, the ruler of Tuyuhun; he was linked to him by marriage. At the beginning of Zhenguan, the other Qiang submitted, but Chici did not come. When Li Jing struck Tuyuhun, Chici camped at Langdao slope to resist the government army. Jiuqie Luosheng, prefect of Kuozhou, sent an envoy to instruct him in fortune and disaster. Chici said, "I have received the kinship favor of the Tuyuhun ruler. He entrusts me as heart and belly. In life and death I will not be double-minded. What else should I know? You should leave quickly and not make my blade dirty." Luosheng knew that he would not understand. He therefore led light cavalry in a surprise attack, defeated Chici at Suyuan Mountain, beheaded several hundred, seized six thousand head of mixed livestock, and returned.

Taizong again ordered Li Daoyan, governor of Minzhou, to persuade him. Chici's nephew Sitou secretly sent sincere submission, and Tuoba Xidou of his party also came over with his division. When Chici saw his kin and party separating from him, he began to intend transformation and submission. Later Liu Shili, governor of Minzhou, again sent men to summon and induce him. Chici and Sitou then led their people inward in submission. Chici was appointed governor of Western Rong prefecture and granted the surname Li. From then on tribute did not cease. Later, when Tibet became strong, the Tuoba clan was gradually pressed by it and asked to move inward. Their settlements were then moved to Qingzhou, where Jingbian and other prefectures were established to house them. Their old land fell to Tibet, and those who remained there became its dependent subjects; Tibet called them Miyao.

There were also the Black Dangxiang, west of Chishui. When Li Jing struck Tuyuhun, Fuyun, the ruler of Tuyuhun, fled to the Black Dangxiang, who gave him empty land to live in. When Tuyuhun submitted with the whole state, the Black Dangxiang chieftain, titled King Dunshan, therefore offered local products. There were also the Snow Mountain Dangxiang, surnamed Pochou, living below Snow Mountain, and the Baigou, Chunsang, Bailan, and other Qiang. After Longshuo they were all broken by Tibet and became its subjects.

Those on the northwestern frontier submitted inward in the third Tianshou year, two hundred thousand mouths in all. Their land was divided into ten prefectures, including Chao, Wu, Fu, and Gui, and they were scattered through the Lingzhou and Xiazhou borders. After Zhide they were often enticed by Tibet, which secretly issued official commissions to them and used them as scouts and road guides. For that reason they sometimes invaded or rebelled, but soon became peaceful again. At the beginning of Baoying, their leaders came to court and requested permission to help supply grain for the Lingzhou army; an excellent edict praised them.

Those on the Jingzhou and Longzhou borders led more than one hundred thousand of their people in the first Shangyuan year to Cui Guangyuan, military commissioner of Fengxiang, and requested surrender. In the twelfth month of the first Baoying year, the Guishunzhou, Qianfengzhou, Guiyizhou, Shunhuazhou, Heningzhou, Heyizhou, Baoshanzhou, Ningdingzhou, Luoyunzhou, and Chaofengzhou settlements all went to Zang Xirang, chief defense commissioner of Shannan West Circuit and prefect of Liangzhou, to request prefectural seals. Xirang reported this, and it was permitted.

In the twelfth month of the third Zhenyuan year, merchants were for the first time forbidden to trade cattle, horses, and weapons with the Dangxiang settlements. In the second month of the fifteenth year, the six-prefecture Dangxiang fled from Shizhou across the west of the river. The Dangxiang had six fu settlements: Yeli Yueshi, Yeli Longer, Yeli Juelu, Erhuang, Yehai, and Yesu. Those living in Qingzhou were called the Eastern Mountain settlements; those living in Xiazhou were called the Pingxia settlements. After Yongtai and Dali they lived in Shizhou, following water and pasture. At this time Ashina Simei, commander of Yong'an city, disturbed their settlements, demanding camels and horses without limit, and palace envoys also supported the matter. The Dangxiang could not endure the harm and so led their settlements across the river. In the fifth month of the ninth Yuanhe year, Youzhou was again established to guard the Dangxiang.

In the eleventh month of the fifteenth year, Li Liao, junior adviser to the heir apparent, was appointed commissioner to proclaim comfort to the Dangxiang. Because the settlements were numerous and wealthy, merchants from near and far carried silk and goods in to trade for sheep and horses. In the Taihe and Kaicheng periods, the military commands over them were disorderly and indulged in greed without regard for danger or ruin. Some forced purchases of their sheep and horses and did not pay their value. Because of this the settlements suffered and led one another into theft; the roads of Ling and Yan were somewhat blocked. At the beginning of Huichang, the emperor repeatedly appointed envoys to settle and comfort them, and also appointed censorial officials as commissioners, dividing three seals to command them. Those in Bin, Ning, and Yan were put under Cui Junhui, palace-service censor; those in Yan, Xia, Chang, and Ze under Li Hu; those in Ling, Wu, Lin, and Sheng under Zheng He. Each was also granted a scarlet fish-bag to give weight to the matter. After a long time nothing came of it, and they were all soon dismissed.

Gaochang

Gaochang was the court of the Former King of Cheshi under Han and the old land of the Wuji colonel under Later Han. It lies 4,300 li west of the capital. The state has twenty-one cities, and the king's capital is Gaochang. Its Jiaohe city is the old court of the Former King; Tiandi city is the colonel's city. It has almost ten thousand fighting men. Its soil is fertile, and grains and wheat ripen twice each year. It has grape wine and is suitable for the five fruits. There is a grass called baidie; the people of the state gather its flowers and weave them into cloth. They have writing and understand documents and accounts. The offices they establish also borrow Chinese titles. Their king Qu Boya was the sixth-generation descendant of Jia, king of Gaochang in Later Wei. In Sui Yangdi's time he entered court, was appointed grand master for splendid happiness on the left, governor of Cheshi, and Duke of Bian, and a woman of the imperial kin by marriage, of the Yuwen clan, was given to him as Princess Huarong for his wife.

In the second Wude year, Boya died and his son Wentai succeeded. He sent envoys to announce mourning. Gaozu sent Zhu Huibiao, former prefect of Hezhou, to condole. In the seventh year, Wentai again offered one male and one female dog, each six cun high and more than a chi long, very intelligent by nature, able to pull a horse and carry a candle in its mouth. He said they originally came from Fulin. China has had Fulin dogs from this time. When Taizong succeeded to the throne, Gaochang again offered a dark fox fur robe; Taizong therefore gave Wentai's wife, Lady Yuwen, one set of flower ornaments. Lady Yuwen again offered a jade tray. Whatever happened among the states of the Western Regions, Wentai would report it. In the winter of the fourth Zhenguan year, Wentai came to court. When he was about to return to his state, gifts to him were very generous. His wife Lady Yuwen requested inclusion among imperial kin; an edict granted her the surname Li, enfeoffed her as Princess Changle, and sent an edict of comfort.

At that time the states of the Western Rong who came to court with tribute all passed by way of Gaochang, but later Wentai gradually blocked them. Yiwu had earlier been subject to the Western Turks and now submitted inward. Wentai again joined with the Yabghu and was about to attack Yiwu. Taizong, because he was inconsistent, sent a letter of sharp rebuke and summoned his great minister Ashina Ju, Champion General, to court in order to discuss affairs with him. Wentai in the end did not send him, but sent his senior secretary Qu Yong to apologize.

At first, during the disorders of Daye, many Chinese had thrown themselves among the Turks. When Xieli was defeated, some fled to Gaochang, and Wentai detained them all and would not send them back. Taizong ordered him to register and send them, but Wentai still hid them. He then joined Yibishe of the Western Turks in attacking and breaking three cities of Yanqi, carrying off their men and women. The king of Yanqi submitted a memorial complaining of this, and Taizong sent Li Daoyu, director in the Ministry of Works, to ask about the situation. In the thirteenth year, Taizong told Wentai's envoy: "For several years Gaochang has been negligent in court and tribute and has had no rite of a vassal minister. Inside the state it establishes office titles according to our hundred officials. It calls itself subject to others. How can this be allowed? At this new year, the myriad states came to court, but Wentai did not arrive. He has heightened walls and deepened moats, preparing in advance against punishment. Recently when my envoy reached there, Wentai said, 'The eagle flies in the sky, the pheasant hides in the reeds, the cat roams the hall, and the mouse rests in its hole. Each has obtained its place; will it not live?' Moreover, when envoys of the Western Regions wish to come, Wentai detains them all. He also sent an envoy to say to Xueyantuo, 'Since you yourself are qaghan and are the equal of the Son of Heaven of Han, why must you bow to his envoy?' He is deficient in rites toward the one he serves and separates the good relations of neighbors. If evil is not punished, what will encourage the good? Next year I shall send troops and horses to strike you."

At this time the qaghan of Xueyantuo submitted a memorial requesting to serve as guide for the army in striking Gaochang, and Taizong permitted it. He ordered Tang Jian, minister of Revenue, to go to Xueyantuo and plan the advance. Taizong hoped that Wentai might repent and again sent a sealed letter showing him fortune and disaster and summoning him to court. Wentai claimed illness and did not come. Taizong then appointed Hou Junji, minister of Personnel, as grand commander-in-chief of the Jiaohe route, and sent him with Xue Wanjun, grand general of the Left Garrison, and troops of Turks, Xi, and Bi, several tens of thousands of foot and horse, to strike Gaochang. At that time the high ministers and close attendants all thought that marching through desert, using armies ten thousand li away, would make success difficult. They also said the territory lay in utter remoteness, and even if obtained could not be held. They competed in remonstrance, but Taizong would not listen.

Wentai told those close to him: "When I formerly went to court, I saw that north of Qin and Long the cities and settlements were desolate, no longer comparable to Sui. If now they attack me, and send many soldiers, the grain transport will not suffice; if they send thirty thousand or fewer, I can control them. Add to this the difficulty and danger of the desert road; they will naturally become exhausted. I shall wait at ease for the weary and sit to harvest their distress. What is there to worry about?" When he heard that the royal army had reached the mouth of the desert, he was terrified and had no plan. He became ill and died.

His son Zhisheng succeeded. Soon Junji's army suddenly arrived at Liu valley and advanced on Tiandi city. The general Qibi Heli was the forward army; he engaged and then withdrew. The main army followed, stormed and took the city, and captured more than seven thousand men and women. It advanced close to the capital. Zhisheng sent a letter to Junji saying, "The one who was guilty toward the Son of Heaven was the late king. His fault was deep and punishments accumulated, but his body is already dead. Zhisheng has held the succession only a short while. Will you pardon me?" Junji said, "If you can repent of disaster, bind yourself before the army gate." He then ordered the several armies to draw siege wagons and stone-throwers forward. Flying stones fell like rain, and the city was greatly afraid. Zhisheng, pressed to extremity, came out and surrendered. Junji divided troops to seize the land, taking its three commanderies, five counties, and twenty-two cities: eight thousand households, 37,700 mouths, and 4,300 horses. Its borders ran eight hundred li east to west and five hundred li north to south. Earlier a child's song in the state said, "Gaochang's troops and horses are like frost and snow; the Han house's troops and horses are like sun and moon. When sun and moon shine on frost and snow, with a turn of the hand they melt away." Wentai had men try to capture the one who first sang it, but they could not.

At first, Wentai had made peace with Yugushe of the Western Turks, giving him gold and silk and agreeing that in emergency they would support one another from inside and outside. When Yugushe heard that Junji's army had arrived, he was afraid and fled west, not daring to rescue him. Junji soon sent an envoy announcing victory. Taizong was delighted, feasted the hundred officials, and bestowed gifts by rank. He granted a special pardon within Gaochang: soldiers and above in the army, fathers and sons guilty of capital crimes and below, close kin guilty of exile and below, greater-merit kin guilty of penal labor and below, and lesser-merit and sima mourning kin guilty of beating punishments were all forgiven.

At that time Taizong wished to make Gaochang into prefectures and counties. Wei Zheng, Specially Advanced, remonstrated: "When Your Majesty first came to rule all under Heaven, the husband and wife of Gaochang came first to court. After several months, foreign merchants were blocked by him from offering tribute, and added to this he was without ritual toward a great state, so that punitive execution was applied. If the guilt stops with Wentai, that is also enough. It would be better to soothe his people and establish his son. That is what is called punishing crime and consoling the people; authority and virtue would cover the distant outside, and this is good statecraft. Now if you seek advantage in his soil and make it prefectures and counties, you must always have more than a thousand men to guard it, changing them every several years. Whenever the garrison is exchanged, three or four out of ten die. Clothing and supplies must be arranged and sent. Kin are separated from kin. After ten years, Longyou will be emptied. Your Majesty will never obtain a pinch of grain or a chi of cloth from Gaochang to help China. This is called scattering what is useful to serve what is useless. I do not see that it is acceptable."

Taizong did not follow him. In the end he made the land Xizhou, also established the Anxi Protectorate, and left troops to guard it. Earlier the Western Turks had sent their Yabghu to station troops at Qaghan Stupa city, responding to Gaochang. Now he became afraid and came in surrender, and his land was made Tingzhou. Taizong then carved stone to record merit and returned. Zhisheng, his ministers, and his leading powerful men were all moved to China. The Qu clan possessed the state down to Zhisheng, nine generations and 134 years, and then was destroyed. Zhisheng was soon appointed general of the Left Martial Guard and enfeoffed Duke of Jincheng commandery. His younger brother Zhizhan was made commandant of the Right Martial Guard and Duke of Tianshan county. When Taizong died, Zhisheng's stone image was carved and set below the dark gate of Zhaoling. Zhizhan died in the Linde period as grand general of the Left Guard of the Brave and prefect of Xizhou. At the beginning of Tianshou, his son Chongyu was appointed grand general of the Left Martial Guard and Prince of Jiao'a commandery. When he died, the succession ended.

Tuyuhun

Tuyuhun's ancestors lived at Qingshan in Tuhe. During the Jin disorders they first crossed Long, stopping south of Gansong and west of the Tao River, reaching Bailan in the south. Their land was several thousand li. They had walled towns but did not live in them. They followed water and pasture, using tents as houses and meat and curds as food. Their offices at first included senior clerk, marshal, and general. In more recent times they had kings and dukes, managers, secretaries, and gentlemen. Their custom somewhat knew writing. Men usually wore long skirts and silk caps, or wore mi-bi veils. Women used gold flowers as head ornaments, braided the hair and wound it behind, attaching pearls and cowries. In marriage, rich families gave heavy betrothal property; poor men stole women and went away. When a father died, a man married his stepmothers; when an elder brother died, he married all his sisters-in-law. Mourning had regulated garments, which were removed when burial was finished. The state had no regular tax. When expenditures were insufficient, it levied rich households and merchants, stopping when enough had been obtained. Those who killed people or stole horses were punished by death; for other offenses goods were exacted to redeem the crime.

The climate is very cold. The soil is suited to barley and turnips, and has some beans and millet. It produces good horses, yaks, copper, iron, cinnabar, and the like. There is Qinghai, eight hundred li around, with a small mountain in it. In winter they release mares on it and say they obtain dragon stock. Once they obtained Persian horses and released them into the sea; from this were born dappled foals able to travel a thousand li in a day, so later generations call them Qinghai dapples. The land includes Shanshan and Qiemo. Northwest of it are several hundred li of flowing sands. In summer there is a hot wind that harms travelers. When the wind is about to arrive, old camels know it; they stretch out their necks and cry, burying mouths and noses in the sand. People take this as a sign and immediately cover mouths and noses with felt to avoid the harm.

In Sui Yangdi's time, their king Fuyun invaded the frontier. Yangdi personally commanded six armies to attack him. Fuyun escaped with several tens of cavalry by hiding at Niling. His king of Xiantou led more than one hundred thousand men and women in surrender. Yangdi established Shun, his hostage son, as king, sent him back to the home state to command the remaining people, and soon summoned him back again. At the end of Daye, Fuyun recovered all the old land and again became a border trouble. When Gaozu received the abdication, Shun came from Jiangdu to Chang'an. At that time Li Gui still occupied Liangzhou. Gaozu sent envoys to make peace with Fuyun and ordered him to strike Gui as service; then Shun would be released to return to his state. Fuyun was delighted and raised troops to attack Li Gui. They fought at Kumen and broke off after crossing arms. Fuyun repeatedly sent envoys to court with tribute and requested Shun. Gaozu then sent him.

When Taizong came to the throne, Fuyun sent his Duke of Luoyang to court. Before the envoy had returned, Fuyun plundered Shanzhou greatly and withdrew. Taizong sent an envoy to rebuke him and summoned Fuyun to court. Fuyun claimed illness and did not come. He also sought marriage for his son, King Zun, and Taizong therefore required the son to come personally to receive the bride as a means of loose restraint. King Zun again claimed illness and refused to enter court. An edict stopped the marriage, and the palace attendant Kang Chuzhi was sent to instruct him in fortune and disaster. Fuyun sent troops to raid Lanzhou and Kuozhou.

At that time Li Xuanyun, prefect of Shanzhou, reported: "Tuyuhun's good horses all pasture at Qinghai. If light troops cover them, great profit can be obtained." Therefore Duan Zhixuan, grand general of the Left Guard of the Brave, was sent with frontier troops and forces of the Qibi and Dangxiang to strike them. Thirty li from Qinghai, Zhixuan and Liang Luoren, general of the Left Guard of the Brave, did not wish to fight. They halted the army, delayed, and did not advance, so Tuyuhun drove off the Qinghai pasture horses and fled. The subordinate general Li Junxian led picked cavalry by a separate road and caught the enemy south of Qinghai at Xuanshui garrison. He defeated them, captured more than twenty thousand cattle and sheep, and returned. At that time Fuyun was old, confused, and muddled. His evil minister, King Tianzhu, deluded and disordered him and detained Zhao Dekai, our envoy and assistant in the Court of State Ceremonial. Taizong repeatedly sent proclamations and instructions; envoys went more than ten times, but in the end Fuyun had no intention of reform.

In the ninth Zhenguan year an edict appointed Li Jing, Specially Advanced, grand commander-in-chief of the West Sea route; Hou Junji, minister of War, commander-in-chief of the Jishi route; Daozong, Prince of Rencheng, commander-in-chief of the Shanzhou route and also Jing's deputy; Li Daliang, governor of Liangzhou, commander-in-chief of the Qiemo route; Li Daoyan, governor of Minzhou, commander-in-chief of the Chishui route; and Gao Zengsheng, prefect of Lizhou, commander-in-chief of the Yanze route, together with troops of Turks and Qibi, to strike Tuyuhun. The generals repeatedly met the enemy and defeated them in successive battles. They captured Murong Xiaojun, king of Gaochang. Xiaojun was brave and strategic, a heart-and-belly minister of Fuyun. Jing and the others advanced to Red Sea, met the three divisions of Tianzhu, and defeated them greatly, then passed through the sources of the river.

Li Daliang also captured twenty of their titled kings and tens of thousands of mixed livestock. When he reached the western border of Qiemo, some reported that Fuyun had fled west, crossed the Tulun desert, and intended to enter Khotan. The general Xue Wanjun led light picked troops in pursuit, entered the desert for several hundred li, caught the remnant party, and defeated it. In the desert there was no water; the officers and soldiers all stabbed their horses and drank the blood. Hou Junji and Daozong, Prince of Jiangxia, went by the southern road, climbed Hanku Mountain, watered their horses at Wuhai, captured the titled king Liang Quhu, and passed through more than two thousand li of empty land. In high summer frost fell and much snow lay piled up; the land lacked water and grass, the soldiers ate ice, and the horses all ate snow. They also reached Bailiang, looked north toward Jishi Mountain, and saw where the river source comes out.

The two armies joined at Dafei River and reached the valley of Poluozhen. Shun, Fuyun's son and King of Daning, was in extreme straits. He beheaded King Tianzhu, the prime minister of the state, and brought the whole state in surrender. Fuyun was greatly afraid and fled with more than one thousand cavalry into the desert. His followers gradually deserted; those who could stay with him were only a little more than one hundred cavalry. He then hanged himself and died. The people of the state established Shun as qaghan, and he acknowledged himself subject and submitted inward.

Shun was Fuyun's legitimate son. At first he had been a hostage son in Sui and was appointed grand master for splendid happiness with gold seal and purple ribbon. For a long time he could not return, and Fuyun then established another son as heir apparent. When Shun returned to the state, his mind was always dissatisfied. When Li Jing and the other armies went from victory to victory, he thought he had lost his place and wished to use the occasion to establish merit; for that reason he surrendered. An edict said: "Tuyuhun arbitrarily set up a ruler and occupied the wild border. Its intent was in fierce wickedness, and government came from powerful ministers. Chiefs and channels were divided, tribes and settlements resentful. Evil lengthened and did not reform; the wild heart burned ever more fiercely. They did not look to the rites of vassal ministers and had no principle of serving the superior. They stole the frontier and cruelly cut the people. Since accumulated evil had ripened, Heaven's destruction had signs. I rule the four seas and nurture the ten thousand kinds. If one thing loses its place, the responsibility lies deeply with me. Therefore I commanded six armies and set out this regular punishment; the meaning lies in preserving the state, and the feeling is not to delight in war. His son Murong Shun, King of Daning, is a nephew of the Sui house, intelligent in purpose, long raised in the central land. Happily admiring the Chinese manner, he saw the season and deeply understood rebellion and obedience. Because his father rejected remonstrance, went against the many, and alone fell into delusion, he executed the evil minister and preserved this great plan. He turned round and changed course, assuming guilt on behalf of his father. This beauty of loyalty and filial conduct is deeply commendable. A son who can establish merit is sufficient to make up for fault. The old offense should especially be pardoned. Yet his state was established on the western border and has lasted for generations. To abolish it immediately is more than feeling can bear. Continuing its ancestral sacrifices properly belongs to the descendant who has submitted to command. Shun may be enfeoffed King of Xiping commandery and appointed Tuhu Luwugan Dou qaghan."

Taizong feared that Shun would not be able to pacify his state, and sent Li Daliang with several thousand picked troops as support. Because Shun had long been a hostage in Sui, the people of the state were not attached to him. Before long he was killed by his ministers. His son Nuohebo, King of Yan, succeeded. Nuohebo was young, and the great ministers struggled for power. The state was in great disorder. Taizong sent troops to assist him, enfeoffed him King of Heyuan commandery, appointed him Wudi Yabale Dou qaghan, and sent Daoming, Prince of Huaiyang, with credentials to invest him, granting drums and banners. Nuohebo then entered court and requested marriage. In the fourteenth year, Taizong gave him Princess Honghua as wife and sent very generous dowry gifts.

In the fifteenth year, the prime minister Wang of Nuohebo's division held power and secretly planned disorder. He intended to call up troops and falsely announce a sacrifice to the mountain god, using this to attack the princess and carry Nuohebo off to Tibet. The date had already been set. Nuohebo learned of it and was greatly afraid. He led light cavalry and fled to Shanshan city, where his King Weixin received him with troops. Du Fengju, prefect of Shanzhou, joined forces with King Weixin, attacked Prime Minister Wang, defeated him, killed his three brothers, and sent an envoy to report the situation. Taizong ordered Tang Jian, minister of Revenue, to carry credentials and comfort him. When Taizong died, Nuohebo's stone image was carved and set below Zhaoling.

When Gaozong succeeded, because Nuohebo had married a princess he was appointed commandant escorting the imperial son-in-law and given forty bolts of goods. Later Tuyuhun and Tibet attacked one another, and each sent envoys requesting troops for rescue; Gaozong permitted neither. Tibet was furious and led troops to strike Tuyuhun. Nuohebo could not resist. He escaped with Princess Honghua and fled to Liangzhou. Gaozong sent Xue Rengui, grand general of the Right Guard of Authority, and others to rescue Tuyuhun, but they were defeated by Tibet. Thereupon Tuyuhun was annexed by Tibet. Nuohebo came inward with several thousand tents of close followers. An edict appointed Su Dingfang, grand general of the Left Martial Guard, as settlement commissioner, and he moved their people to the land of Lingzhou. Anle prefecture was established, with Nuohebo as prefect; the intention was that they be at peace and happy.

In the fourth Chuigong year, Nuohebo died and his son Zhong succeeded. Zhong died and his son Xuanzhao succeeded. In the third Shengli year, Xuanzhao was appointed supernumerary grand general of the Left Leopard-Fierce Guard and also succeeded to his father's Wudi Yabale Dou qaghanate. Xuanzhao died and his son Xihao succeeded. Xihao died and his son Zhao succeeded. When Tibet captured our Anle prefecture, their people again moved east and scattered through the borders of Shuofang and Hedong. Today in common speech many call them Tuihun; this is probably from hurried pronunciation. In the twelfth month of the fourteenth Zhenyuan year, Murong Fu, deputy military commissioner of Shuofang and grand general with concurrent regular rank of the Left Gold-Mace Guard, was made hereditary governor of Changle prefecture, king of Qinghai state, and Wudi Yabale Dou qaghan. Before long he died, and the enfeoffed succession ended. From the end of Jin Yongjia, when Tuyuhun first crossed west over the Tao River and founded a state in the old land of the various Qiang, until it was destroyed by Tibet in the third Longshuo year, there were in all 350 years.

Yanqi

The state of Yanqi lies 4,300 li west of the capital. It borders Gaochang in the east and neighbors Kucha in the west. It is the old land of Han times. Its king's surname was Long, and his personal name was Tuqizhi. It had more than two thousand fighting men and was usually in service to the Western Turks. Its land was fertile, had many grapes, and had considerable profit from fish and salt.

In the sixth Zhenguan year, Tuqizhi sent envoys offering local products and also requested that the Great Desert road be opened for the convenience of travelers. Taizong permitted it. Since the disorder at the end of Sui, the desert road had been closed, and those from the Western Regions who came to court with tribute all came through Gaochang. At this Gaochang was greatly angered, became hostile to Yanqi, and sent troops to attack Yanqi, plundering greatly and withdrawing. The Western Turkish Mohe She was not in accord with Duolu and Nushibi and fled to Yanqi; Duolu came again to attack it.

In the sixth year, Yanqi sent envoys to report the situation and also offered fine horses. At that time the Western Turkish state was in disorder. Taizong sent the palace attendant Sang Xiaoyan, together with Wei Hongji of the left and right armor offices, to soothe it, and also invested Dielishi as qaghan. Once the qaghan was established, he was already friendly with Yanqi and ordered support for Yanqi. In the twelfth year, Chuyue and Chumi joined Gaochang to attack and capture five cities of Yanqi, seized 1,500 men and women, burned the dwellings, and withdrew. In the fourteenth year, when Hou Junji attacked Gaochang, he sent envoys to make alliance with Yanqi. The king of Yanqi was delighted and asked to be supporting force. When Gaochang was broken, its king came to the army gate and paid respects. Yanqi people who had earlier been captured by Gaochang were all returned to it. For this reason Yanqi sent envoys thanking the court and offered local products.

That year, the Western Turkish great minister Quli Chuo took the daughter of the king of Yanqi as wife for his younger brother, and from then on they became lips and teeth. Court tribute then ceased. Guo Xiaoke, Protector-General of Anxi, requested permission to strike Yanqi, and Taizong allowed it. At the time the king of Yanqi's younger brother Jiebi Yabghu and his two brothers had come to Xizhou. Xiaoke selected three thousand foot and horse, went out by the Silver Mountain road, and made Jiebi's younger brother Lipu Zhun his guide. The capital city of Yanqi had water on all four sides and relied on its danger and firmness, not expecting us. Xiaoke doubled marches, traveled by night to the foot of the city, and secretly sent officers and soldiers to float across the water. At dawn they all climbed the walls at once, drums and horns shook together, and the city was in great confusion. Xiaoke released the troops to attack, captured King Tuqizhi, and took more than one thousand heads and prisoners.

Because Lipu Zhun had merit in guiding the army, Xiaoke left him to manage the state affairs and returned. At that time the imperial carriage was at Luoyang palace. Xiaoke sent Tuqizhi in chains with his wife and children to the temporary seat; an edict pardoned him. At first, the Western Turkish Quli Chuo led troops to rescue Yanqi. Three days after Xiaoke had returned with the army, Quli Chuo then imprisoned Lipu Zhun. The Western Turkish Chuban Chuo then ordered his tudun to come and administer Yanqi and sent envoys to court with tribute. Taizong rebuked him: "Yanqi was struck and obtained by our troops. Who are you that you come abruptly to control it?" The tudun was afraid and returned to his state. Yanqi again established Xuepo Anazhi, elder cousin on Lipu Zhun's father's side, as king. Chuban Chuo then seized Lipu Zhun and sent him to Kucha, where he was killed. Because Xuepo Anazhi had Chuban Chuo as support, he possessed the state. When Ashina She'er attacked Kucha, Anazhi was greatly afraid, fled to Kucha, and guarded its eastern city against the government army. She'er attacked and captured him, listed his crimes, and beheaded him. He found Anazhi's younger cousin Xianna Zhun and established him as king so that he would perform offices and tribute. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, the stone image of Long Tuqizhi was carved and set below the dark gate. From then on court tribute did not cease.

Kucha

The state of Kucha is the old land of the Western Regions under Han. It lies 7,500 li west of the capital. Its king's surname was Bai. It had walled towns and houses, and its occupations were plowing fields and raising livestock. Men and women all cut the hair, letting it hang level with the neck; only the king did not cut his hair. They studied Hu writing, Brahman writing, and calculation, and they especially valued the Buddha's law. The king covered his neck with brocade, wore a brocade robe and a gold-jewel belt, and sat on a gold lion couch. It had good horses and humped cattle. It had abundant grape wine; wealthy households possessed several hundred dan.

When Gaozu came to the throne, its ruler Sufa Bojue sent envoys to court. Bojue soon died, and his son Sufa Die succeeded in his place, titled Shijian Mohe Silifa. In the fourth Zhenguan year he again sent envoys offering horses. Taizong granted him a sealed letter and comforted him richly. From this point tribute came yearly, though Kucha was subject to the Western Turks. When Guo Xiaoke, Protector-General of Anxi, came to attack Yanqi, Kucha sent troops to assist Yanqi. From then on offices and tribute were rather lacking. When Fadie died, his younger brother Heli Bushibi succeeded and gradually lost the rites of a vassal minister.

In the twentieth year, Taizong appointed Ashina She'er, grand general of the Left Guard of the Brave, as grand commander-in-chief of the Kunshan route, and sent him with Guo Xiaoke, Protector-General of Anxi, and Yang Hongli, chamberlain for the national granaries, leading five generals. He also called up more than one hundred thousand cavalry from thirteen Tiele divisions to attack Kucha. After She'er broke the western barbarian Chuyue and Chumi, he advanced toward Kucha's northern border, coming out where they did not expect him. The king of Yanqi appointed by the Western Turks abandoned his city and fled; She'er sent light cavalry after him and captured him. Kucha was greatly shaken, and many garrison generals abandoned their cities and ran. She'er advanced and camped at Jishi, three hundred li from the capital city. He sent Han Wei, prefect of Yizhou, with more than one thousand cavalry as vanguard, and Cao Jishu, general of the Right Guard of the Brave, followed. West of Duohe city they met the king of Kucha and his prime minister Nali, the general Jieliedian, and others, with a force of fifty thousand, coming to resist the royal army.

Han Wei feigned flight and drew them on. When the king Silifa saw that Wei's soldiers were few, he came with all his force. Wei withdrew for thirty li and joined Jishu's army; together they struck and defeated Kucha greatly. The king retreated to guard the capital. She'er advanced and pressed it with the army. The king then fled with light cavalry, and the city was taken. Xiaoke was ordered to guard it. Sha Prefect Su Haizheng and Xue Wanbei, attendant for imperial carriages, were sent with picked cavalry to press the fugitive for six hundred li. The king, in urgent straits, retreated to Baochuan city. She'er and the others advanced, surrounded it, and captured the king and the great general Jieliedian. The prime minister Nali escaped with only his body, secretly drew in Western Turkish troops and more than ten thousand soldiers of his state, and came to raid Xiaoke. He killed Xiaoke, and the government army was greatly disturbed. Cui Yiqi, director in the Ministry of Granaries, with Cao Jishu, Han Wei, and others, struck Nali and defeated him. Soon the people of Kucha seized him and brought him to the army. In all, five of Kucha's great cities were broken, and tens of thousands of men and women were captured. She'er then established the king's younger brother Yabghu as king, carved stone to record merit, and returned. He presented the captives, King Heli Bushibi, Nali, Jieliedian, and the others, at the imperial ancestral temple. Soon Heli Bushibi was appointed commandant of the Left Martial Wing Guard, and Nali and those below him received offices by rank. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, their stone images were carved and set before the dark gate. In the first Yonghui year, Heli Bushibi was again appointed grand general of the Right Guard of the Brave; soon he was released back to his state to soothe the remaining people, made king of Kucha as before, and given one thousand bolts of goods.

Earlier, after Taizong had broken Kucha, he moved the Anxi Protectorate into its state city, with Guo Xiaoke as Protector-General, also commanding Khotan, Shule, and Suyab; these were called the Four Garrisons. When Gaozong came to the throne, he did not wish to widen the land and weary the people, and again ordered the responsible offices to abandon Kucha and the other Four Garrisons, moving Anxi back to Xizhou as before. Later Tibet invaded greatly, and the four garrison forts west of Yanqi all fell to the enemy. When Zetian held court, in the first Changshou year, Wang Xiaojie, commander of the Wuwei army, and Ashina Zhongjie defeated Tibet greatly and recovered Kucha, Khotan, and the other Four Garrisons. From then on the Anxi Protectorate was again set up in Kucha, using thirty thousand Han troops to guard it. Since picked troops were called from the interior and sent far beyond the desert, and clothing and grain also had to be supplied and sent, this was a severe suffering to the common people. Those who spoke on affairs often requested that it be abandoned, but Zetian in the end did not permit it. Among the Anxi Protector-Generals, in Zetian's time there was Tian Yangming; in Zhongzong's time, Guo Yuanzhen; at the beginning of Kaiyuan, Zhang Xiaohao and Du Xian. All had political achievements and were accepted by the foreign peoples.

Shule

The state of Shule is old land of Han times. In the west it borders the Congling and lies 9,300 li west of the capital. Its king's surname was Pei. During Zhenguan, the Turks married a daughter to the king. It had two thousand fighting men. Its custom served the fire god and had Hu writing. In the ninth Zhenguan year, it sent envoys offering fine horses, and from then on court tribute did not cease. In the sixteenth Kaiyuan year, Xuanzong sent envoys to invest its king Pei Anding as king of Shule.

Khotan

The state of Khotan borders the Congling to the southwest and joins Kucha. It lies 9,700 li west of the capital. It has four thousand fighting men. Its state produces fine jade. Its people have many crafts, like serving the fire god, and honor the Buddha's teaching. It had earlier been subject to the Western Turks. Its king's surname was Yuchi, and his personal name was Qumi.

In the sixth Zhenguan year it sent envoys offering a jade belt, and Taizong answered with a gracious edict. In the thirteenth year it again sent a son to serve as attendant. When Ashina She'er attacked Kucha, its king Fu Shexin was greatly afraid and sent his son with 10,300 camels to supply the army. When the army was about to return, Xue Wanbei, senior secretary of the expeditionary army, asked She'er: "Now that Kucha has been broken, the state authority has been shaken abroad. I ask to use this opportunity and, with light cavalry, hold the king of Khotan." She'er then sent Wanbei with fifty cavalry to reach the state of Khotan. Wanbei displayed the state's authority and divine power and urged him to enter and see the Son of Heaven. Fu Shexin then followed Wanbei and came to court.

When Gaozong succeeded, he appointed him grand general of the Right Guard of the Brave, and also appointed his son Yabghu Dian general of the Right Guard of the Brave. He granted both of them gold belts, brocade robes, sixty bolts of cloth and silk, and one residence. They were kept several months and then sent away. Fu Shexin therefore requested that sons and younger brothers remain as palace guards. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, his stone image was carved and set below the dark gate. In the third Chuigong year, its king Fu Shexiong again came in to court. In the third Tianshou year, Fu Shexiong died, and Zetian enfeoffed his son Jing as king of Khotan. In the sixteenth Kaiyuan year, Yuchi Fushi was again invested as king of Khotan, and he repeatedly sent envoys to court with tribute. In the third Qianyuan year, Yehu Yao, younger brother of Yuchi Sheng, king of Khotan, and acting commander of the Left Gate Guard, was appointed supernumerary chamberlain for imperial stables and also deputy military commissioner of the Four Garrisons, with provisional authority over state affairs. Because Sheng had led troops to assist the state in difficulty at the beginning of Zhide and firmly requested to remain as palace guard, this command was issued; the matter is in Sheng's biography.

India

The state of Tianzhu is the Shendu state of Han, also called the Brahman land. It lies northwest of the Congling and is more than thirty thousand li around. It is divided into five Tianzhu: Central, Eastern, Southern, Western, and Northern Tianzhu. Each land is several thousand li, with hundreds of cities and settlements. Southern Tianzhu reaches the great sea; Northern Tianzhu resists the Snow Mountains; around it on four sides mountains form a wall, with a single valley in the south as the state gate. Eastern Tianzhu reaches the sea in the east and neighbors Funan and Linyi. Western Tianzhu borders Kapisa and Persia. Central Tianzhu occupies the meeting point of the four Tianzhu; its capital city is more than seventy li around and faces the Chanlian River in the north.

It is said that in the past there was a Brahman who led a thousand disciples and practiced learning beneath a tree. The tree spirit descended to him and so became his wife. Palaces and rooms stood up by themselves, and servants were abundant. Then he made the hundred spirits serve him, building a city to command it; in one day it was completed. After this there was King Ashoka, who again employed ghosts and spirits, piled stones to make palaces and towers, and carved patterns and reliefs on all of them. They were not things human strength could make. King Ashoka rather practiced cruel government and set up the punishment of burning and branding, called hell; its traces are now seen in the city.

The king of Central Tianzhu was surnamed Qilidie, or some say Kshatriya. His family possessed the state for generations and did not usurp or murder one another. The soil is low, damp, and hot. Rice ripens four times a year. There are diamonds, like purple quartz, which do not melt after a hundred refinings and can cut jade. There are also sandalwood, turmeric, and other fragrances. It communicates with Da Qin, so its precious things sometimes reach Funan and Jiaozhi for trade. The common people are prosperous and content. The custom has no registers or account books; those who till the king's land pay the land's profit. Cowries are used as money. The people all have deep eyes and long noses. When showing the highest respect, they lick the feet and rub the heels. Families have strange music, singers, and performers.

The king and great ministers often wear brocade and woolen cloth. They make a conch-shaped knot on the crown of the head and cut the remaining hair so that it curls. The custom is for all to go barefoot. Clothing values white. Only the Brahman caste is distinguished by wearing baidie cloth. The dead are either burned and their ashes taken to make stupas, or abandoned in the fields to give to birds and beasts, or set afloat in the river to feed fish and turtles. There are no written rules of mourning. Rebels are killed in confinement; small offenses are redeemed by money. The unfilial have hands cut off, feet chopped, ears cut, and noses sliced, and are exiled beyond the border. They have writing and are good at astronomy, mathematics, and calendrical arts. The people all study the Siddham chapter, which they say is the law of Brahma. They write records on pattra leaves. They do not kill living beings or drink wine. Old traces of the Buddha are often found throughout the state.

In Sui Yangdi's time, Pei Ju was sent to receive and handle the western foreigners, and many states arrived; only Tianzhu did not communicate, which the emperor considered a regret. In the Wude period, that state was in great disorder. Its successor king, Shiluoyiduo, trained troops and gathered a multitude. Wherever he turned, no one could resist. Elephants did not have their saddles removed; men did not take off armor. After six years, the rulers of the four Tianzhu all faced north as his subjects. His authority and power shook the distant lands, and his punishments and government were very strict. In the fifteenth Zhenguan year, Shiluoyiduo called himself king of Magadha and sent envoys to court with tribute. Taizong sent down a sealed letter of comfort and inquiry. Shiluoyiduo was greatly startled and asked the people of the several states, "Since antiquity has an envoy from Mahachina ever come to our state?" All said, "Never." He then bowed with forehead to ground and received the edict, and therefore sent envoys to offer tribute. Because his land was far away, Taizong treated him with great ceremony, and again sent Li Yibiao, assistant in the Chamberlain for Palace Revenues, as return envoy. Shiluoyiduo sent great ministers to meet him in the suburbs; the whole city came out to gaze. Incense was burned along the road. Shiluoyiduo led his ministers and subordinates to face east and bow in receiving the imperial letter, and again sent envoys offering fire pearls, turmeric fragrance, and a bodhi tree.

In the tenth Zhenguan year, the monk Xuanzang reached that state and returned with more than six hundred Sanskrit scriptures and treatises. Earlier, Wang Xuance, senior secretary of the Right Guard Command, had been sent as envoy to Tianzhu, and the kings of the four Tianzhu all sent envoys to court with tribute. At that time Shiluoyiduo, king of Central Tianzhu, died and the state fell into great disorder. His minister Nafudi Aluonashun usurped the throne and mobilized all the Hu troops to resist Xuance. Xuance and thirty mounted followers fought the Hu but could not match them; their arrows were exhausted, and all were captured. The Hu plundered the tribute goods of the several states. Xuance escaped alone by night and ran to Tibet. He mobilized 1,200 picked troops and more than seven thousand cavalry from Nipoluo to follow him. Xuance and his deputy Jiang Shiren led the two states' troops to the city of Central Tianzhu, fought for three days in succession, and broke it greatly. They beheaded more than three thousand; those who jumped into the water and drowned were almost ten thousand. Aluonashun abandoned the city and fled, but Shiren advanced and captured him. They seized 12,000 men and women and more than thirty thousand cattle and horses. Tianzhu was therefore shaken and afraid. Aluonashun was brought back as captive. In the twenty-second year he reached the capital. Taizong was delighted, ordered the responsible offices to announce it to the ancestral temple, and told the ministers: "When people's ears and eyes play with sounds and colors, and their mouths and noses indulge in odors and flavors, this is the source of ruined virtue. If the Brahman had not plundered my envoys, how would he have become a captive? In the past Zhongshan took harm because of greed for treasure, and the lord of Shu was destroyed because of the golden ox. These things all come from this." Xuance was appointed grand master for court consultation. At this time a ritual specialist was obtained from that state, Naluo'ersapo Mei, who said he was two hundred years old and claimed to have arts of long life. Taizong treated him with deep ceremony and housed him inside the Golden Wind Gate. He made medicines for lengthening the years, ordered Cui Dunli, minister of War, to oversee the work, and sent envoys throughout the empire to collect strange medicines and unusual stones beyond counting. After years had passed, the medicine was completed; when taken, it had no effect, and the man was later released back to his state. When Taizong was buried at Zhaoling, the stone image of Aluonashun was carved and set below the dark gate.

The several tens of states belonging to the five Tianzhu have roughly the same customs and products. There is the state of Jiamolu; its custom opens the eastern gate toward the sun. When Wang Xuance arrived, its king sent envoys to offer strange treasures, unusual objects, and a map, and also requested an image of Laozi and the Daodejing. In the state of Najietuo there is Xiluo city. In it is a many-storied pavilion holding the Buddha's skull bone and staff. In the twentieth Zhenguan year it sent envoys offering local products. In the second Tianshou year, the kings of Eastern Tianzhu, Western Tianzhu, Southern Tianzhu, Northern Tianzhu, and Central Tianzhu all came to court and offered tribute. In the fourth Jinglong year, Southern Tianzhu again sent envoys to court. In the first Jingyun year, it again sent envoys offering local products. In the second Kaiyuan year, Western Tianzhu again sent envoys offering local products. In the eighth year, Southern Tianzhu sent envoys offering five-colored parrots that could speak. That year the king of Southern Tianzhu, Shili Naluo Sengjia, requested permission to use war elephants, troops, and horses to attack Dashi and Tibet, and also asked that his army be given a name. Xuanzong very much approved and named the army Huaide, Cherishing Virtue. In the ninth month, the king of Southern Tianzhu, Shili Naluo Sengjia Baoduozhimo, made a monastery for the state and submitted a memorial requesting a name-board; an edict granted it the name Guihua, Submission to Transformation. In the eleventh month, an envoy was sent to invest Lina Luojia Baoduo as king of Southern Tianzhu, and he sent envoys to court. In the sixth month of the seventeenth year, the Tripitaka monk Sengmida of Northern Tianzhu offered medicines such as zhihan. In the tenth month of the nineteenth year, the king of Central Tianzhu, Yishafumo, sent his great monk to court with tribute. In the third month of the twenty-ninth year, the Central Tianzhu prince Li Cheng'en came to court, was appointed roving general, and was released back. In Tianbao they repeatedly sent envoys.

Kapisa

The state of Kapisa lies south of the Congling, 12,200 li from the capital. It is usually in service to the Great Yuezhi. Its land is hot and damp. The people all ride elephants. The soil is suited to non-glutinous rice, and grasses and trees do not die even in the cold. Its custom especially trusts the Buddha's law. In Sui Yangdi's time, when the Western Regions were drawn in, more than thirty states came at different times, but Kapisa alone did not arrive.

In the eleventh Zhenguan year, it sent envoys offering fine horses. Taizong approved its sincerity and granted colored silks. In the sixteenth year it again sent envoys offering a rugte mouse, sharp-snouted and red-tailed, able to eat snakes; when someone had been stung by a snake, the mouse would sniff and urinate on it, and the sore would immediately heal. In the third Xianqing year, when its state customs were inquired into, they said, "From the king's founder Xinnie down to today's Hexiezhi, father and son have transmitted the throne for twelve generations." That year its city was changed into the Xiuxian Protectorate. At the beginning of Longshuo, its king was appointed concurrently Xiuxian governor with military affairs over Xiuxian and ten other prefectures.

In the seventh Kaiyuan year, it sent envoys to court, presenting one case of astronomical texts, secret important formulas, and foreign medicines. An edict sent an envoy to invest its king as Geluodazhi Tele. In the twenty-seventh year, its king Wusan Tele Sa, because he was old, submitted a memorial requesting that his son Fulin Jipo succeed to the throne. This was permitted, and an envoy was sent with the investiture order. In the fourth Tianbao year, his son Bofu Zhun was again invested as hereditary king of Kapisa and Uddiyana and also appointed general of the Left Guard of the Brave. In the first Qianyuan year, it again sent envoys to court with tribute.

Bolur

There was also the state of Bolur, between Kapisa and Tibet. During Kaiyuan it repeatedly sent envoys to court with offerings. In the eighth year, its king Sulintuoyi was invested as king of Bolur. Court tribute did not cease. In the twenty-second year it was broken by Tibet.

Kang

The state of Kang is the state of Kangju of Han. Its king's surname is Wen, and he is a Yuezhi person. Earlier they lived north of the Qilian Mountains at Zhaowu city in Zhangye. They were broken by the Turks, moved south of the Congling, and so came to possess this land. Branch families all use Zhaowu as surname, not forgetting their root. The people all have deep eyes, high noses, and many beards. Men cut or braid the hair. The king wears a felt cap decorated with gold and jewels. Women coil the hair, cover it with black cloth, and decorate it with gold flowers. The people like wine and like singing and dancing in the roads. When a child is born, they put rock honey in his mouth and put bright glue in his palm, wishing that as he grows his mouth will always speak sweetly and his palm will hold money as glue holds things. Their custom practices Hu writing. They are good merchants and compete over the profit of a zhu. When men reach twenty, they go far to neighboring states and come as far as central China; wherever profit is, they go. They take the twelfth month as the year's beginning. Brahmans observe stars and seasonal vapors for them to determine good and bad fortune. They have some Buddha's law. In the eleventh month they drum and dance, begging for cold, splashing water on one another as a great game.

In Sui Yangdi's time, their king Qushuzhi married a daughter of the Western Turkish Yabghu qaghan and so became subject to the Western Turks. In the tenth Wude year, Qushuzhi sent envoys offering fine horses. In the ninth Zhenguan year, he again sent envoys offering a lion. Taizong commended his coming from far away and ordered Yu Shinan, director of the Palace Library, to compose a rhapsody for it. From then on tribute came every year. In the eleventh year, Kang again offered gold peaches and silver peaches, and an edict ordered them planted in the imperial gardens.

In the Wansui Tongtian period, Zetian enfeoffed its great leader Dupo Boti as king of Kang and also appointed him grand general of the Left Guard of the Brave. Boti soon died, and she again invested his son Nineshishi as king of Kang. Shishi died during Shenlong, and the people of the state again established Tuhun as king. In the sixth Kaiyuan year, Kang sent envoys offering chain mail, crystal cups, agate jars, ostrich eggs, yuenuo, and similar things. In the nineteenth year, its king Wule submitted a memorial requesting that his son Duhe be enfeoffed king of Cao and Mojie king of Mi. This was permitted. In the twenty-seventh year, Wule died, and envoys were sent to invest Duhe to succeed to his father's position. In the third Tianbao year, Duhe was again enfeoffed King Who Admires Transformation, and his mother, the qatun, was enfeoffed commandery lady. In the eleventh and thirteenth Tianbao years, they sent envoys to court with tribute.

Persia

Persia lies 15,300 li west of the capital. In the east it touches Tokharistan and Kang, in the north it neighbors the Khazar division of the Turks, in the northwest it resists Fulin, and on the west and south it faces the sea. It has several hundred thousand households. Its king resides in two cities and also has more than ten great cities, like detached palaces in China. When its king first succeeds, he secretly selects a son whose talent can bear the succession, writes down his name, seals it, and stores it. After the king dies, the great ministers and the king's sons together open the seal and look; the one whose name is written is installed as ruler. The king wears a crown with gold flowers, sits on a lion couch, wears a brocade robe, and adds necklaces. The custom serves the gods of Heaven, Earth, sun, moon, water, and fire. The western Hu who serve the fire god all go to Persia to receive the law. In serving the gods, they mix musk with butter, smear it on the beard, and dot the forehead, ears, and nose, using this as reverence. In bowing they must cross the thighs. Their writing is the same as that of the several Hu.

Men and women all go barefoot. Men cut the hair, wear white leather caps, and wear garments that do not open in front. They also have kerchief-mantles, often made in sappan, blue, and white colors, edged on both sides with woven brocade. Women also wear kerchief-mantles, skirts, and shirts, braid the hair behind, and decorate it with gold and silver. In that state they fight on elephants; on each elephant are one hundred warriors. If there are defeated fugitives, they kill all of them. When people in the state have daughters aged ten or more who are beautiful, the king takes and raises them to reward meritorious ministers. The custom honors the right and makes the left low. They take the first day of the sixth month as the year's beginning. In deciding lawsuits they do not use written documents or bonds, but decide orally in court. Prisoners held in jail have no term of years; only when a new king succeeds are they released. For the crime of rebellion, they heat iron at the fire shrine and sear the tongue; if the sore is white the reason is straight, if black the person is guilty. Their punishments include cutting off hands, chopping feet, shaving and cangue, and cutting noses and feet; for light crimes they cut the beard or hang a placard on the neck as a sign, releasing the offender after months. A strong robber, once he enters prison, never comes out, even when old. A small thief is fined silver money. When people die, they are abandoned in the mountains. Mourning garments are worn for one month and then auspicious rites resume.

The climate is hot, and the land is broad and level. They know farming and have much livestock. There is a bird shaped like a camel, unable to fly high, that eats grass and meat and can also devour dogs and seize sheep; local people consider it a severe problem. There are also many white horses and excellent dogs. Some red ones travel seven hundred li in a day, and the spotted gold dogs are what are now called Persian dogs. It produces the xian horse, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, coral trees one or two chi high, amber, mother-of-pearl, agate, fire pearls, glass, liuli, myrobalan, cyperus, chebulic myrobalan, pepper, long pepper, rock honey, thousand-year dates, and dew peaches.

At the end of Sui Daye, the Western Turkish Yabghu qaghan repeatedly attacked and broke the state. The Persian king Kusahe was killed by the Western Turks. His son Shili was established, and the Yabghu then divided his commanders to supervise and command the state; Persia in the end became subject to the Yabghu. When the Yabghu qaghan died, those whom he had ordered to supervise command there made themselves masters in Persia and were no longer in service to the Western Turks. Shili died after one year. Then Kusahe's daughter was established as ruler, and the Turks again killed her. Shili's son Shanjiefang fled to Fulin. The people of the state then welcomed and established him; this was Yinhengzhi. He was on the throne for two years and died. His elder brother's son Yisihou was established.

In the twenty-first Zhenguan year, Yisihou sent envoys offering an animal named huoru snake, shaped like a mouse, blue in color, eight or nine cun long, able to enter holes and take mice. Yisihou was weak and was expelled by the great leaders. He then fled to Tokharistan, but before arriving was also killed by Dashi troops. His son's name was Biluosi, and he again threw himself on the Tokharistan Yabghu and escaped. In the first Longshuo year, Biluosi memorialized that he had repeatedly been invaded and disturbed by Dashi and requested troops for rescue. An edict sent Wang Mingyuan, county magistrate of Nanyou in Longzhou, as envoy to the Western Regions to divide and establish prefectures and counties. The city of Jiling in his land was accordingly made the Persia Protectorate, and Biluosi was appointed governor. After this he sent envoys several times with tribute. During Xianheng, Biluosi himself came in to court. Gaozong was very generous in favor and gifts and appointed him general of the Right Martial Guard.

In the third Yifeng year, Pei Xingjian, vice minister of Personnel, was ordered to lead troops and escort Biluosi with investiture as king of Persia. Because the road was far, Xingjian reached Suyab in Anxi and returned. Biluosi went back alone but could not enter his state. He was gradually invaded by Dashi and lived as guest in Tokharistan for more than twenty years. He had several thousand people in his divisions, but they later gradually scattered. In the second Jinglong year he again came in to court and was appointed general of the Left Guard of Authority. Before long he died of illness. His state then perished, but his people still survived. From the tenth Kaiyuan year to the sixth Tianbao year, envoys came to court ten times in all, each time offering local products. In the fourth month they sent envoys offering an agate couch. In the fourth month of the ninth year, they offered fire-hair embroidered dance mats, long-hair embroidered dance mats, and pearls without holes. In the first Qianyuan year, Persia and Dashi together raided Guangzhou, plundered storehouses, burned houses, and went away by sea. In the sixth Dali year, envoys came to court and offered pearls and other things.

Fulin

The state of Fulin, also called Da Qin, lies on the western sea. In the southeast it touches Persia. Its territory is more than ten thousand li square, with four hundred walled cities and connected settlements. In its palaces, the pillars, lattice, and fittings are often made of crystal and liuli. There are twelve noble ministers who jointly govern state affairs. One of them always has a bag carried beside the king's carriage; when the common people have affairs, they put written statements into the bag. When the king returns to the palace, he opens and examines them and determines what is crooked and straight. Their king is not from a fixed person: they select the worthy and establish him. If disaster or anomaly appears in the state, or wind and rain are not timely, they depose him and establish another. The king's crown is shaped like a bird spreading wings; crown and necklaces are all strung with jewels. He wears embroidered brocade clothing that does not open in front and sits on a gold-flower couch.

There is a bird like a goose, with green feathers, which always sits near the king on the pillow. Whenever food contains poison, the bird immediately cries. The capital city is built of piled stone and is exceedingly high and steep. It has more than one hundred thousand households and faces the sea in the south. On the east face of the city is a great gate more than twenty zhang high, decorated from top to bottom with gold, shining bright for several li. From outside to the king's chamber there are three great gates, arrayed with strange jewels and carved ornament. In the tower of the second gate hangs a great gold balance, with twelve gold balls attached to the ends of the beam to mark the twelve hours of the day. A gold man, as large as a human being, stands beside it. Whenever an hour arrives, the gold ball falls with a ringing sound, and a call is made to record the day and hour without the smallest error. The palace uses sese stones as pillars, gold as floor, ivory as door leaves, and fragrant wood as beams. The custom has no tiles. White stone is pounded to powder, sifted, and spread over roofs; it is hard, dense, bright, and smooth, like jade stone. In the height of summer, when people are oppressed by noise and heat, water is led in hidden channels all over the roofs. The device is precise and secret, so people do not know it. Observers only hear springs sounding on the roof, then suddenly see water flying from the four eaves, hanging waves like waterfalls, stirring air into a cool wind. Its ingenuity is like this.

In custom, men cut the hair, wear mantles, and bare the right shoulder. Women do not open their garments in front and use brocade as headcloth. A household whose property reaches one hundred million is enfeoffed to high rank. There are lambs born in the soil. When the people of the state wait for them to sprout, they build walls to enclose them and guard against outer beasts eating them. Yet their navels are connected to the ground; if cut, they die. Only when men in armor ride horses and beat drums to frighten them do the lambs cry in alarm and break the navel; then they follow water and pasture. The people all shave the head and wear embroidered clothing. They ride covered carts with white canopies, beat drums when going in and out, and set up standards and banners. The land has much gold, silver, and strange treasure: night-shining discs, bright-moon pearls, chicken-frightening rhinoceros horn, great shells, mother-of-pearl, agate, kingfisher feathers, coral, amber. In general the treasures and marvels of the Western Regions mostly come from this state. Sui Yangdi often wished to communicate with Fulin but in the end could not bring it about.

In the seventeenth Zhenguan year, the Fulin king Bodouli sent envoys offering red glass, green gold essence, and other things. Taizong sent down a sealed letter of reply and comfort and granted figured silks. After Dashi grew strong, it gradually oppressed the several states, and then sent the great general Moye to attack Fulin's capital city. They made a treaty of peace, asking Fulin to send gold and silk each year, and Fulin then became subject to Dashi. In the second Qianfeng year, Fulin sent envoys offering diyaqie. In the first Dazu year, it again sent envoys to court. In the first month of the seventh Kaiyuan year, its ruler sent a great leader of Tokharistan to offer two lions and two antelopes. After only a few months, it again sent a great virtuous monk to court with tribute.

Dashi

The state of Dashi was originally west of Persia. In Sui Daye, there was a Persian Hu man herding camels at Mount Jufen Modina. Suddenly a lion spoke with a human voice and said to him: "West of this mountain there are three caves. In the caves are many weapons. You may take them. In the caves are also black stones with white writing; read them and you will become king." The Hu man followed the words and indeed found stones and many spearheads in the caves. On them was writing instructing him to rebel. He then gathered fugitives, crossed the Henghe water, robbed travelers and merchants, and his following gradually became strong. He cut off and occupied Persia's western border and established himself as king. Persia and Fulin each sent troops to attack him, but both were defeated by him.

In the second Yonghui year, Dashi first sent envoys to court with tribute. Its king's surname was Dashi, and his name was Danmi Momi; he said that his state had existed for thirty-four years and had passed through three rulers. The men of the state are black in color, have many beards, and large long noses, resembling Brahmans. The women are white and clear. They also have writing. They produce camels and horses larger than those of the other states. Their weapons are strong and sharp. Their custom is brave in battle and likes serving the heavenly god. The land has many sands and stones and cannot be farmed; they eat only meat of camels and horses. Mount Jufen Modina is southwest of the state and neighbors the sea. The king moved the black stone from the cave and placed it in the state. He also once sent men by ship, carrying clothing and grain into the sea; after eight years they still had not reached the western shore. In the sea they saw a square stone. On the stone was a tree with red trunk and green leaves. On the tree many little children grew together, six or seven cun long. When they saw people they all laughed, moving hands and feet, with heads attached to the tree branches. The envoy plucked one branch, and the child immediately died. It was kept in the Dashi king's palace. There is also a women's state northwest of Dashi, three months' journey away.

At the beginning of Longshuo, Dashi defeated Persia and also defeated Fulin, and only then had rice and flour products. It also led troops south to invade the Brahman land and annexed the several Hu states, with more than four hundred thousand fighting men. During Chang'an it sent envoys offering good horses. In the second Jingyun year it again offered local products. At the beginning of Kaiyuan, it sent envoys to court, presenting horses, jewel-inlaid belts, and other local products. Its envoy, when received in audience, merely stood level and did not bow. The censorial office wished to impeach him. Zhang Yue, chief of the Secretariat, memorialized: "Dashi has different customs and has come from afar admiring righteousness; it should not be treated as a crime." The emperor specially permitted it. Soon it again sent envoys to court with offerings, saying that in its own state it bowed only to the heavenly god and that even when seeing the king there was no rule requiring bowing. The responsible offices repeatedly questioned and rebuked them, and the envoy then requested to bow according to Han rules. At that time the Western Regions states such as Kang and Shi were all subject to Dashi. Its territory extended ten thousand li east to west, and in the east it connected with the Turgesh.

One account says that during Sui Kaihuang, among the Dashi clans there was a Gule kind that had served for generations as chieftains. Within the Gule kind there were also two surnames: one called Penni Xishen and one called Penni Mohuan. Among the descendants of Xishen there was one named Mohemo, brave, strong, and very wise; the multitude established him as ruler. He campaigned east and west, opened land for three thousand li, and also conquered Xiala, also named Shancheng. Fourteen generations after Mohemo came Mohuan. Mohuan killed his elder brother Yiji and established himself; he was again cruel, and those under him resented him. There were men of Hurashan Mucu and Boxilin who raised righteous troops; all who responded were ordered to wear black clothing. Within ten days the multitude filled several tens of thousands. They beat drums and marched west, captured Mohuan alive, and killed him. They then found Apuluoba of the Xishen kind and established him. Those before Mohuan were called the White-Robed Dashi; from Apuluoba onward they changed the name to Black-Robed Dashi. When Apuluoba died, his younger brother Apu Gongfu was established. At the beginning of Zhide he sent envoys to court with tribute. In Daizong's time, when he served as commander, troops of his state were also used to recover the two capitals.

During Baoying and Dali they repeatedly sent envoys. Gongfu died, and his son Midi was established. Midi died, and his son Mouqi was established. Mouqi died, and his younger brother Helun was established. During Zhenyuan, Dashi was a strong enemy of Tibet. More than half the Tibetan army guarded the west against Dashi, and for that reason Tibet seldom became a border trouble; its strength was insufficient. In the fourteenth year, an edict appointed three envoys of the Black-Robed Dashi, Hancuo, Yanji, and Shabei, as palace attendants, and each was released back to his foreign state.

The Historian Says

The historian says: The states of the west extend continuously through mountains and rivers. Since Zhang Qian served as envoy and after Jiezi established merit, many have communicated with China. Tang opened territory to the far limit of Anxi. The weak were cherished by virtue; the strong were controlled by force. Before Kaiyuan, tribute came without cease. With the disorders of Tianbao, the borderlands had many anxieties, and west of the Bin suburbs became Rong and Di. At the lodgings of Gaojie, those who came to court were also few. Therefore the wise kings of antiquity made it their work to pacify China. The saying says, "When those nearby are pleased, those far away come." This is what it means.

The appraisal says: The people of the great dim lands and the states of the west rose and declined with the times, opened and closed with the age. Do not say that Rong hearts did not cherish our virtue; in Zhenguan and Kaiyuan, Gaojie was crowded with them.

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was made from the local Classical Chinese source-text page for Jiu Tang Shu volume 198, the Western Rong biography.

The translation is complete for the source body printed below. It keeps the chapter's state-by-state arrangement and the historian's closing judgment because the passage is valuable as a Tang record of roads, tribute, conquest, protectorates, and the outer limit of imperial responsibility.

Compiled for the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

🌲

Source Text: Classical Chinese

### 泥婆羅國

泥婆羅國，在吐蕃西。其俗翦髮與眉齊，穿耳，揎以竹桶牛角，綴至肩者以為姣麗。食用手，無匕箸。其器皆銅。多商賈，少田作。以銅為錢，面文為人，背文為馬牛，不穿孔。衣服以一幅蔽布身，日數盥浴。以板為屋，壁皆雕畫。俗重博戲，好吹蠡擊鼓。頗解推測盈虛，兼通曆術。事五天神，鐫石為像，每日清水浴神，烹羊而祭。其王那陵提婆，身著真珠、玻璃、車渠、珊瑚、琥珀、瓔珞，耳垂金鉤玉榼，佩寶裝伏突，坐獅子床，其堂內散花燃香。大臣及諸左右並坐於地，持兵數百列侍其側。宮中有七層之樓，覆以銅瓦，欄檻楹栿皆飾珠寶。樓之四角，各懸銅槽，下有金龍，激水上樓，註於槽中，從龍口而出，狀若飛泉。那陵提婆之父，為其叔父所篡，那陵提婆逃難於外，吐蕃因而納焉，克復其位，遂羈屬吐蕃。

貞觀中，衛尉丞李義表往使天竺，塗經其國，那陵提婆見之，大喜，與義表同出觀阿耆婆沴池。周回二十餘步，水恆沸，雖流潦暴集，爍石焦金，未嘗增減。以物投之，即生煙焰，懸釜而炊，須臾而熟。其後王玄策為天竺所掠，泥婆羅發騎與吐蕃共破天竺有功。永徽二年，其王屍利那連陀羅又遣使朝貢。

### 党項羌

党項羌，在古析支之地，漢西羌之別種也。魏、晉之後，西羌微弱，或臣中國，或竄山野。自周氏滅宕昌、鄧至之後，党項始強。其界東至松州，西接葉護，南雜舂桑、迷桑等羌，北連吐谷渾，處山谷間，互三千里。其種每姓別自為部落，一姓之中復分為小部落，大者萬餘騎，小者數千騎，不相統一。有細封氏、費聽氏、往利氏、頗超氏、野辭氏、房當氏、米擒氏、拓拔氏，而拓拔最為強族。俗皆土著，居有棟宇，其屋織牦牛尾及羊毛覆之，每年一易。俗尚武，無法令賦役。其人多壽，年一百五六十歲。不事產業，好為盜竊，互相淩劫。尤重復仇，若仇人未得，必蓬頭垢面跣足蔬食，要斬仇人而後復常。男女並衣裘褐，仍被大氈。畜牦牛、馬、驢、羊，以供其食。不知稼穡，土無五谷。氣候多風寒，五月草始生，八月霜雪降。求大麥於他界，醖以為酒。妻其庶母及伯叔母、嫂、子弟之婦，淫穢烝褻，諸夷中最為甚，然不婚同姓。老死者以為盡天年，親戚不哭；少死者則雲夭枉，乃悲哭之。死則焚屍，名為火葬。無文字，但候草木以記歲時。三年一相聚，殺牛羊以祭天。自周及隋，或叛或朝，常為邊患。

貞觀三年，南會州都督鄭元璹遣使招諭，其酋長細封步賴舉部內附，太宗降璽書慰撫之。步賴因來朝，宴賜甚厚，列其地為軌州，拜步賴為刺史。仍請率所部討吐谷渾。其後諸姓酋長相次率部落皆來內屬。請同編戶，太宗厚加撫慰，列其地為崌、奉、巖、遠四州，各拜其首領為刺史。

有羌酋拓拔赤辭者，初臣屬吐谷渾，甚為渾主伏允所暱，與之結婚。及貞觀初，諸羌歸附，而赤辭不至。李靖之擊吐谷渾，赤辭屯狼道坡以抗官軍。廓州刺史久且洛生遣使諭以禍福，赤辭曰：「我被渾主親戚之恩，腹心相寄，生死不貳，焉知其他。汝可速去，無令汙我刀也。」洛生知其不悟，於是率輕騎襲之，擊破赤辭於肅遠山，斬首數百級，虜雜畜六千而還。太宗又令岷州都督李道彥說諭之，赤辭從子思頭密送誠款，其黨拓拔細豆又以所部來降。赤辭見其宗黨離，始有歸化之意。後岷州都督劉師立復遣人招誘，於是與思頭並率眾內屬，拜赤辭為西戎州都督，賜姓李氏。自此職貢不絕。其後吐蕃強盛，拓拔氏漸為所逼，遂請內徙，始移其部落於慶州，置靜邊等州以處之。其故地陷於吐蕃，其處者為其役屬，吐蕃謂之「弭藥」。

又有黑党項，在於赤水之西。李靖之擊吐谷渾也，渾主伏允奔黑党項，居以空閑之地。及吐谷渾舉國內屬，黑党項酋長號敦善王因貢方物。又有雪山党項，姓破醜氏，居於雪山之下，及白狗、舂桑、白蘭等諸羌，自龍朔已後，並為吐蕃所破而臣屬焉。

其在西北邊者，天授三年內附，凡二十萬口，分其地置朝、吳、浮、歸等十州，仍散居靈、夏等界內。自至德已後，常為吐蕃所誘，密以官告授之，使為偵道，故時或侵叛，尋亦底寧。寶應初，其首領來朝，請助國供靈州軍糧，優詔褒美。

其在涇、隴州界者，上元元年率其眾十餘萬，詣鳳翔節度使崔光遠請降。寶應元年十二月，其歸順州部落、乾封州部落、歸義州部落、順化州部落、和寧州部落、和義州部落、保善州部落、寧定州部落、羅雲州部落、朝鳳州部落，並詣山南西道都防禦使、梁州刺史臧希讓請州印。希讓以聞，許之。

貞元三年十二月，初禁商賈以牛、馬、器械於党項部落貿易。十五年二月，六州党項自石州奔過河西。党項有六府部落，曰野利越詩、野利龍兒、野利厥律、兒黃、野海、野窣等。居慶州者號為東山部落，居夏州者號為平夏部落。永泰、大歷已後，居石州，依水草。至是永安城鎮將阿史那思昧擾其部落，求取駝馬無厭，中使又贊成其事，党項不堪其弊，遂率部落奔過河。元和九年五月，復置宥州以護党項。

十五年十一月，命太子中允李寮為宣撫党項使。以部落繁富，時遠近商賈，賫繒貨入貿羊馬。至太和、開成之際，其籓鎮統領無緒，恣其貪婪，不顧危亡，或強市其羊馬，不酬其直，以是部落苦之，遂相率為盜，靈、鹽之路小梗。會昌初，上頻命使安撫之，兼命憲臣為使，分三印以統之。在邠、寧、延者，以侍御史、內供奉崔君會主之；在鹽、夏、長、澤者，以侍御史、內供奉李鄠主之；在靈、武、麟、勝者，以侍御史、內供奉鄭賀主之，仍各賜緋魚以重其事。久而無狀，尋皆罷之。

### 高昌

高昌者，漢車師前王之庭，後漢戊己校尉之故地。在京師西四千三百里。其國有二十一城，王都高昌。其交河城，前王庭也；田地城，校尉城也。勝兵且萬人。厥土良沃，谷麥歲再熟；有蒲萄酒，宜五果；有草名白疊，國人采其花，織以為布。有文字，知書計，所置官亦采中國之號焉。其王麹伯雅，即後魏時高昌王嘉之六世孫也。隋煬帝時入朝，拜左光祿大夫、車師太守、封弁國公，仍以戚屬宇文氏女為華容公主以妻之。

武德二年，伯雅死，子文泰嗣，遣使來告哀，高祖遣前河州刺史硃惠表往吊之。七年，文泰又獻狗雄雌各一，高六寸，長尺餘，性甚慧，能曳馬銜燭，雲本出拂菻國。中國有拂菻狗，自此始也。太宗嗣位，復貢玄狐裘，因賜其妻宇文氏花鈿一具。宇文氏復貢玉盤。西域諸國所有動靜，輒以奏聞。貞觀四年冬，文泰來朝，及將歸蕃，賜遺甚厚。其妻宇文氏請預宗親，詔賜李氏，封常樂公主，下詔慰諭之。

時西戎諸國來朝貢者，皆塗經高昌，文泰後稍壅絕之。伊吾先臣西突厥，至是內屬，文泰又與葉護連結，將擊伊吾。太宗以其反覆，下書切讓，徵其大臣冠軍阿史那矩入朝，將與議事。文泰竟不遣，乃遣其長史麹雍來謝罪。

初，大業之亂，中國人多投於突厥。及頡利敗，或有奔高昌者，文泰皆拘留不遣。太宗詔令括送，文泰尚隱蔽之。又尋與西突厥乙毗設擊破焉耆三城，虜其男女而去。焉耆王上表訴之，太宗遣虞部郎中李道裕往問其狀。十三年，太宗謂其使曰：「高昌數年來朝貢脫略，無籓臣禮，國中署置官號，準我百僚，稱臣於人，豈得如此！今茲歲首，萬國來朝，而文泰不至。增城深塹，預備討伐。日者我使人至彼，文泰云：『鷹飛於天，雉竄於蒿，貓遊於堂，鼠安於穴，各得其所，豈不活耶！』又西域使欲來者，文泰悉拘留之。又遣使謂薛延陀云：『既自為可汗，與漢天子敵也，何須拜謁其使。』事人闕禮，離間鄰好，惡而不誅，善者何勸？明年，當發兵馬以擊爾。」是時薛延陀可汗表請為軍向導，以擊高昌，太宗許之。令民部尚書唐儉至延陀，與謀進取。太宗冀其悔過，復下璽書，示以禍福，徵之入朝。文泰稱疾不至。太宗乃命吏部尚書侯君集為交河道大總管，率左屯衛大將軍薛萬均及突厥、契、苾之眾，步騎數萬眾以擊之。時公卿近臣，皆以行經沙磧，萬里用兵，恐難得志；又界居絕域，縱得之，不可以守，競以為諫。太宗皆不聽。文泰謂所親曰：「吾往者朝覲，見秦、隴之北，城邑蕭條，非復有隋之比。設今伐我，發兵多則糧運不給；若發三萬以下，吾能制之。加以磧路艱險，自然疲頓，吾以逸待勞，坐收其弊，何足為憂也？」及聞王師臨磧口，惶駭計無所出，發病而死。

其子智盛嗣立。既而君集兵奄至柳谷，進趨田地城，將軍契苾何力為前軍，與之接戰而退。大軍繼之，攻拔其城，虜男女七千餘口。進逼其都。智盛移君集書曰：「有罪於天子者，先王也，咎深譴積，身已喪亡。智盛襲位無幾，君其赦諸？」君集謂曰：「若能悔禍，當面縛軍門也。」又命諸軍引沖車、拋車以逼之，飛石雨下，城中大懼。智盛窮蹙，出城降。君集分兵掠地，下其三郡、五縣、二十二城。戶八千，口三萬七千七百，馬四千三百匹。其界東西八百里，南北五百里。先是，其國童謠云：「高昌兵馬如霜雪，漢家兵馬如日月。日月照霜雪，回手自消滅。」文泰使人捕其初唱者，不能得。

初，文泰與西突厥欲谷設通和，遺其金帛，約有急相為表裏。及聞君集兵至，欲谷設懼而西走，不敢救。君集尋遣使告捷，太宗大悅，宴白僚，班賜各有差。曲赦高昌部內從軍兵士已上，父子犯死罪已下，期親犯流已下，大功犯徒已下，小功緦麻犯杖罪，悉原之。

時太宗欲以高昌為州縣，特進魏徵諫曰：「陛下初臨天下，高昌夫婦先來朝謁。自後數月，商胡被其遏絕貢獻，加之不禮大國，遂使五誅載加。若罪止文泰，斯亦可矣，未若撫其人而立其子，所謂伐罪吊民，威德被於遐外，為國之善者也。今若利其土壤，以為州縣，常須千餘人鎮守，數年一易，每及交蕃，死者十有三四，遣辦衣資，離別親戚，十年之後，隴右空虛。陛下終不得高昌撮谷尺布以助中國，所謂散有用而事無用，臣未見其可。」太宗不從，竟以其地置西州，又置安西都護府，留兵以鎮之。初，西突厥遣其葉護，屯兵於可汗浮圖城，與高昌相影響，至是懼而來降，以其地為庭州。於是勒石紀功而旋。其智盛君臣及其豪右，皆徙中國。

麹氏有國，至智盛凡九世，一百三十四年而滅。尋拜智盛為左武衛將軍，封金城郡公；弟智湛為右武衛中郎將，天山縣公。及太宗崩，刊石像智盛之形，列於昭陵玄闕之下。智湛，麟德中終於左驍衛大將軍、西州刺史。天授初，其子崇裕授左武衛大將軍，交阿郡王。卒，封襲遂絕。

### 吐谷渾

吐谷渾，其先居於徒河之清山，屬晉亂，始度隴，止於甘松之南，洮水之西，南極白蘭，地數千里。有城郭而不居，隨逐水草，廬帳為室，肉酪為糧。其官初有長史、司馬、將軍。近代已來，有王公、僕射、尚書、郎中。其俗頗識文字。男子通服長裙繒帽，或戴冪苾，婦人以金花為首飾，辮髮縈後，綴以珠貝。其婚姻富家厚出聘財，貧人竊女而去。父卒，妻其庶母；兄亡，妻其諸嫂。喪有服制，葬訖而除。國無常稅，用度不給，輒斂富室商人，以取足而止。殺人及盜馬者罪死，他犯則徵物以贖罪。氣候多寒，土宜大麥、蔓菁，頗有菽粟。出良馬、牦牛、銅、鐵、硃砂之類。有青海，周回八百里，中有小山，至冬，放牝馬於其上，言得龍種。嘗得波斯馬，放入海，因生驄駒，能日行千里，故代稱「青海驄」焉。地兼鄯善、且沫。西北有流沙數百里，夏有熱風，傷弊行旅，風之將至，老駝便知之，則引項而鳴，以口鼻埋沙中。人以為候，即以氈擁蔽口鼻而避其患。

隋煬帝時，其王伏允來犯塞，煬帝親總六軍以討之，伏允以數十騎潛於泥嶺而遁，其仙頭王率男女十餘萬口來降。煬帝立其質子順為王，送之本國，令統餘眾，尋復追還。大業末，伏允悉收故地，復為邊患。高祖受禪，順自江都來歸長安。時李軌猶據涼州，高祖遣使與伏允通和，令擊軌以自效，當放順返國。伏允大悅，興兵擊之，戰於庫門，交綏而退。頻遣使朝貢，以順為請，高祖乃遣之。

太宗即位，伏允遣其洛陽公來朝。使未返，大掠鄯州而去。太宗遣使責讓之，徵伏允入朝，稱疾不至。仍為其子尊王求婚，於是責其親迎以羈縻之。尊王又稱疾不肯入朝，有詔停婚，遣中郎將康處直諭以禍福。伏允遣兵寇蘭、廓二州。

時鄯州刺史李玄運上言：「吐谷渾良馬悉牧青海，輕兵掩之，可致大利。」於是遣左驍衛大將軍段志玄率邊兵及契苾、党項之眾以擊之。去青海三十里，志玄與左驍衛將軍梁洛仁不欲戰，頓軍遲留不進，吐谷渾遂驅青海牧馬而遁。亞將李君羨率精騎別路，及賊於青海之南懸水鎮，擊破之，虜牛羊二萬餘頭而還。時伏允年老昏耄，其邪臣天柱王惑亂之，拘我行人鴻臚丞趙德楷。太宗頻遣宣諭，使者十餘返，竟無悛心。

貞觀九年，詔特進李靖為西海道行軍大總管；兵部尚書侯君集為積石道行軍總管，任城王道宗為鄯州道行軍總管，仍為靖副；涼州都督李大亮為且沫道行軍總管，岷州都督李道彥為赤水道行軍總管，利州刺史高甑生為鹽澤道行軍總管，並突厥、契苾之眾以擊之。諸將頻與賊遇，連戰破之，獲其高昌王慕容孝雋。孝雋有雄略，伏允心膂之臣也。靖等進至赤海，遇其天柱三部落，擊大破之，遂歷於河源。李大亮又俘其名王二十人，雜畜數萬，至且沫西境，或傳伏允西走，渡圖倫磧，欲入於闐。將軍薛萬均率輕銳追奔，入磧數百里，及其餘黨，破之。磧中乏水，將士皆刺馬血而飲之。侯君集與江夏王道宗趣南路，登漢哭山，飲馬烏海，獲其名王梁屈忽，經塗二千餘里空虛之地，盛夏降霜，多積雪，其地乏水草，將士啖冰，馬皆食雪。又達於柏梁，北望積石山，觀河源之所出焉。兩軍會於大非川，至破邏貞谷，伏允子大寧王順窮蹙，斬其國相天柱王，舉國來降。伏允大懼，與千餘騎遁於磧中，眾稍亡散，能屬之者才百餘騎，乃自縊而死。國人乃立順為可汗，稱臣內附。

順，即伏允之嫡子也。初為侍子於隋，拜金紫光祿大夫，久不得歸，伏允遂立他子為太子，及得返國，意常怏怏。會李靖等諸軍所向克捷，自以失位，欲因此立功，由是遂降。乃詔曰：

吐谷渾擅相君長，竊據荒裔，志在兇德，政出權門。酋渠攜貳，種落怨憤，長惡不悛，野心彌熾。莫顧籓臣之禮，曾無事上之節，草竊疆場，虐割兆庶，積惡既稔，天亡有徵。朕君臨四海，含育萬類，一物失所，責深在予。所以爰命六軍，申茲九伐，義存活國，情非黷武。其子大寧王慕容順，隋氏之甥，志懷明悟，長自中土，幸慕華風，爰見時機，深識逆順。以其愎諫違眾，獨陷迷途，遂誅邪臣，存茲大計。翻然改轍，代父歸罪，忠孝之美，深有可嘉。子能立功，足以補過，既往之釁，特宜原免。然其建國西鄙，已歷年代，即從廢絕，情所未忍，繼其宗祀，允歸命胤。可封順為西平郡王，仍授趉胡呂烏甘豆可汗。

太宗恐順不能靜其國，仍遣李大亮率精兵數千，為其聲援。順既久質於隋，國人不附，未幾為臣下所殺。其子燕王諾曷缽嗣立。

諾曷缽既幼，大臣爭權，國中大亂。太宗遣兵援之，封為河源郡王。仍授烏地也拔勒豆可汗，遣淮陽王道明持節冊拜，賜以鼓纛。諾曷缽因入朝請婚。十四年，太宗以弘化公主妻之，資送甚厚。十五年，諾曷缽所部丞相王專權，陰謀作難。將征兵，詐言祭山神，因欲襲擊公主，劫諾曷缽奔於吐蕃，期有日矣。諾曷缽知而大懼，率輕騎走鄯善城，其威信王以兵迎之。鄯州刺史杜鳳舉與威信王合軍擊丞相王，破之，殺其兄弟三人，遣使言狀。太宗命民部尚書唐儉持節撫慰之。太宗崩，刻石圖諾曷缽之形，列於昭陵之下。

高宗嗣位，以其尚主，拜駙馬都尉，賜物四十段。其後與吐蕃互相攻伐，各遣使請兵救援，高宗皆不許之。吐蕃大怒，率兵以擊吐谷渾。諾曷缽既不能禦，脫身及弘化公主走投涼州。高宗遣右威衛大將軍薛仁貴等救吐谷渾，為吐蕃所敗，於是吐谷渾遂為吐蕃所並。諾曷缽以親信數千帳來內屬，詔左武衛大將軍蘇定方為安置大使，始徙其部眾於靈州之地，置安樂州，以諾曷缽為刺史，欲其安而且樂也。

垂拱四年，諾曷缽卒，子忠嗣。忠卒，子宣趙嗣。聖歷三年，授宣趙左豹韜衛員外大將軍，仍襲父烏地也拔勒豆可汗。宣趙卒，子曦皓嗣。曦皓卒，子兆嗣，及吐蕃陷我安樂州，其部眾又東徙，散在朔方、河東之境。今俗多謂之退渾，蓋語急而然。貞元十四年十二月，以朔方節度副使、左金吾衛大將軍同正慕容復為襲長樂州都督、青海國王、烏地也拔勒豆可汗。未幾，卒，其封襲遂絕。

葉谷渾自晉永嘉之末，始西渡洮水，建國於群羌之故地，至龍朔三年為吐蕃所滅，凡三百五十年。

### 焉耆國

焉耆國，在京師西四千三百里，東接高昌，西鄰龜茲，即漢時故地。其王姓龍氏，名突騎支。勝兵二千餘人，常役屬於西突厥。其地良沃，多蒲萄，頗有魚鹽之利。

貞觀六年，突騎支遣使貢方物，復請開大磧路以便行李，太宗許之。自隋末罹亂，磧路遂閉，西域朝貢者皆由高昌。及是，高昌大怒，遂與焉耆結怨，遣兵襲焉耆，大掠而去。西突厥莫賀設與咄陸、弩失畢不協，奔於焉耆，咄陸復來攻之。

六年，遣使言狀，並貢名馬。時西突厥國亂，太宗遣中郎將桑孝彥領左右胄曹韋弘機往安撫之，仍冊立咥利失可汗。可汗既立，素善焉耆，令與焉耆為援。十二年，處月、處密與高昌攻陷焉耆五城，掠男女一千五百人，焚其廬舍而去。十四年，侯君集討高昌，遣使與之相結，焉耆王大喜，請為聲援。及破高昌，其王詣軍門稱謁。焉耆人先為高昌所虜者，悉歸之。由是遣使謝恩，並貢方物。

其年，西突厥重臣屈利啜為其弟娶焉耆王女，由是相為脣齒，朝貢遂闕。安西都護郭孝恪請擊之，太宗許焉。會焉耆王弟頡鼻葉護兄弟三人來至西州，孝恪選步騎三千出銀山道，以頡鼻弟栗婆準為鄉導。焉耆所都城，四面有水，自恃險固，不虞於我。孝恪倍道兼行，夜至城下，潛遣將士浮水而渡。至曉，一時攀堞，鼓角齊震，城中大擾。孝恪縱兵擊之，虜其王突騎支，首虜千餘級。以栗婆準導軍有功，留攝國事而還。時駕幸洛陽宮，孝恪鎖突騎支並其妻子送行在所，詔宥之。初，西突厥屈利啜將兵來援焉耆，孝恪還師三日，屈利啜乃囚栗婆準，而西突厥處般啜令其吐屯來攝焉耆，遣使朝貢。太宗數之曰：「焉耆者，我兵擊得，汝何人，輒來統攝。」吐屯懼而返國。焉耆又立栗婆準從父兄薛婆阿那支為王。處般啜乃執栗婆準送於龜茲，為所殺。薛婆阿那支既得處般啜為援，遂有國。及阿史那社爾之討龜茲，阿那支大懼，遂奔龜茲，保其東城，以禦官軍。社爾擊擒之，數其罪而斬焉。求得阿那支從父弟先那準，立為王，以修職貢。及太宗葬昭陵。乃刻石像龍突騎支之形，列於玄闕之下。自是朝貢不絕。

### 龜茲國

龜茲國，即漢西域舊地也。在京師西七千五百里。其王姓白氏。有城郭屋宇，耕田畜牧為業。男女皆翦髮，垂與項齊，唯王不翦髮。學胡書及婆羅門書、算計之事，尤重佛法。其王以錦蒙項，著錦袍金寶帶，坐金獅子床。有良馬、封牛。饒蒲萄酒，富室至數百碩。

高祖即位，其主蘇伐勃駃遣使來朝。勃駃尋卒，子蘇伐疊代立，號時健莫賀俟利發。貞觀四年，又遣使獻馬，太宗賜以璽書，撫慰甚厚，由此歲貢不絕，然臣於西突厥。安西都護郭孝恪來伐焉耆，龜茲遣兵援助，自是職貢頗闕。伐疊死，其弟訶黎布失畢代立，漸失籓臣禮。

二十年，太宗遣左驍衛大將軍阿史那社爾為昆山道行軍大總管，與安西都護郭孝恪、司農卿楊弘禮率五將軍，又發鐵勒十三部兵十餘萬騎，以伐龜茲。社爾既破西蕃處月、處密，乃進師趨其北境，出其不意，西突厥所署焉耆王棄城而遁，社爾遣輕騎追擒之。龜茲大震，守將多棄城而走。社爾進屯積石，去其都城三百里。遣伊州刺史韓威率千餘騎為前鋒，右驍衛將軍曹繼叔次之。西至多褐城，與龜茲王相遇，及其相那利、將羯獵顛等，有眾五萬，逆拒王師。威乃偽遁而引之，其王俟利發見威兵少，悉眾而至。威退行三十里，與繼叔軍會，合擊大破之。其王退保都城，社爾進軍逼之，王乃輕騎而走，遂下其城，令孝恪守之。遣沙州刺史蘇海政、尚輦奉禦薛萬備以精騎逼之，行六百里，其王窘急，退保於撥換城。社爾等進軍圍之，擒其王及大將羯獵顛等。其相那利僅以身免，潛引西突厥之眾並其國兵萬餘人，來襲孝恪，殺之，官軍大擾。倉部郎中崔義起與曹繼叔、韓威等擊之，那利敗走。尋為龜茲人所執以詣軍。前後破其大城五所，虜男女數萬口。社爾因立其王之弟葉護為王，勒石紀功而旋。俘其王訶黎布失畢及那利、羯獵顛等獻於社廟。尋以訶黎布失畢為左武翊衛中郎將，那利已下授官各有差。太宗之葬昭陵，乃刻石像其形，列於玄闕之前。永徽元年，又以訶黎布失畢為右驍衛大將軍，尋放還蕃，撫其餘眾，依舊為龜茲王，賜物一千段。

先是，太宗既破龜茲，移置安西都護府於其國城，以郭孝恪為都護，兼統於闐、疏勒、碎葉，謂之「四鎮」。高宗嗣位，不欲廣地勞人，復命有司棄龜茲等四鎮，移安西依舊於西州。其後吐蕃大入，焉耆已西四鎮城堡，並為賊所陷。則天臨朝，長壽元年，武威軍總管王孝傑、阿史那忠節大破吐蕃，克復龜茲、於闐等四鎮，自此復於龜茲置安西都護府，用漢兵三萬人以鎮之。既征發內地精兵，遠逾沙磧。並資遣衣糧等，甚為百姓所苦。言事者多請棄之，則天竟不許。其安西都護，則天時有田揚名，中宗時有郭元振，開元初則張孝暠、杜暹，皆有政績，為夷人所伏。

### 疏勒國

疏勒國，即漢時舊地也。西帶蔥嶺，在京師西九千三百里。其王姓裴氏。貞觀中，突厥以女妻王。勝兵二千人。俗事祅神，有胡書文字。貞觀九年，遣使獻名馬，自是朝貢不絕。開元十六年，玄宗遣使冊立其王裴安定為疏勒王。

### 于闐國

于闐國，西南帶蔥嶺，與龜茲接，在京師西九千七百里。勝兵四千人。其國出美玉。俗多機巧，好事祅神，崇佛教。先臣於西突厥。其王姓尉遲氏，名屈密。

貞觀六年，遣使獻玉帶，太宗優詔答之。十三年，又遣子入侍。及阿史那社爾伐龜茲，其王伏闍信大懼，使其子以駝萬三百匹饋軍。及將旋師，行軍長史薛萬備請社爾曰：「今者既破龜茲，國威已振，請因此機，願以輕騎羈取于闐之王。」社爾乃遣萬備率五十騎抵于闐之國，萬備陳國威靈，勸其入見天子，伏闍信於是隨萬備來朝。

高宗嗣位，拜右驍衛大將軍，又授其子葉護玷為右驍衛將軍，並賜金帶、錦袍、布帛六十段，並宅一區，留數月而遣之，因請留子弟以宿衛。太宗葬昭陵，刻石像其形，列於玄闕之下。

垂拱三年，其王伏闍雄復來入朝。天授三年，伏闍雄卒，則天封其子璥為于闐國王。開元十六年，復冊立尉遲伏師為于闐王，數遣使朝貢。乾元三年，以于闐王尉遲勝弟守左監門衛率葉護曜為太僕員外卿，仍同四鎮節度副使。權知本國事。以勝至德初領兵赴國難，因堅請留宿衛，故有是命，事有勝傳。

### 天竺國

天竺國，即漢之身毒國，或云婆羅門地也。在葱嶺西北，周三萬餘里。其中分為五天竺：其一曰中天竺，二曰東天竺，三曰南天竺，四曰西天竺，五曰北天竺。地各數千里，城邑數百。南天竺際大海，北天竺拒雪山，四周有山為壁，南面一谷，通為國門；東天竺東際大海，與扶南、林邑鄰接；西天竺與罽賓、波斯相接；中天竺據四天竺之會，其都城週迴七十餘里，北臨禪連河。云昔有婆羅門領徒千人，肄業於樹下，樹神降之，遂為夫婦。宮室自然而立，僮僕甚盛。於是使役百神，築城以統之，經日而就。此後有阿育王，復役使鬼神，累石為宮闕，皆雕文刻鏤。非人力所及。阿育王頗行苛政，置砲烙之刑，謂之地獄，今城中見有其跡焉。

中天竺王姓乞利咥氏，或云刹利氏，世有其國，不相篡弒。厥土卑濕暑熱，稻歲四熟，有金剛，似紫石英，百煉不銷，可以切玉。又有旃檀、鬱金諸香。通於大秦，故其寶物或至扶南、交趾貿易焉。百姓殷樂，俗無簿籍，耕王地者輸地利。以齒貝為貨。人皆深目長鼻。致敬極者，舐足摩踵。家有奇樂倡伎。其王與大臣多服錦罽。上為螺髻於頂，餘髮翦之使拳。俗皆徒跣。衣重白色，唯梵志種姓披白疊以為異。死者或焚屍取灰，以為浮圖；或委之中野，以施禽獸；或流之於河，以飼魚鼈。無喪紀之文。謀反者幽殺之，小犯罰錢以贖罪。不孝則斷手刖足，截耳割鼻，放流邊外。有文字，善天文算曆之術。其人皆學《悉曇章》，云是梵天法。書於貝多樹葉以紀事。不殺生飲酒。國中往往有舊佛跡。

隋煬帝時，遣裴矩應接西蕃，諸國多有至者，唯天竺不通，帝以為恨。當武德中，其國大亂。其嗣王尸羅逸多練兵聚衆，所向無敵。象不解鞍，人不釋甲，居六載而四天竺之君皆北面以臣之，威勢遠振，刑政甚肅。貞觀十五年，尸羅逸多自稱摩伽陀王，遣使朝貢。太宗降璽書慰問，尸羅逸多大驚，問諸國人曰：「自古曾有摩訶震旦使人至吾國乎？」皆曰：「未之有也。」乃膜拜而受詔書，因遣使朝貢。太宗以其地遠，禮之甚厚，復遣衛尉丞李義表報使。尸羅逸多遣大臣郊迎，傾城邑以縱觀，焚香夾道，逸多率其臣下東面拜受敕書，復遣使獻火珠及鬱金香、菩提樹。

貞觀十年，沙門玄奘至其國，將梵本經論六百餘部而歸。先是遣右率府長史王玄策使天竺，其四天竺國王咸遣使朝貢。會中天竺王尸羅逸多死，國中大亂，其臣那伏帝阿羅那順篡立，乃盡發胡兵以拒玄策。玄策從騎三十人與胡禦戰，不敵，矢盡，悉被擒。胡並掠諸國貢獻之物。玄策乃挺身宵遁，走至吐蕃，發精銳一千二百人，並泥婆羅國七千餘騎，以從玄策。玄策與副使蔣師仁率二國兵進至中天竺國城，連戰三日，大破之，斬首三千餘級，赴水溺死者且萬人，阿羅那順棄城而遁，師仁進擒獲之。虜男女萬二千人，牛馬三萬餘頭匹。於是天竺震懼，俘阿羅那順以歸。二十二年至京師，太宗大悅，命有司告宗廟，而謂羣臣曰：「夫人耳目玩於聲色，口鼻耽於臭味，此乃敗德之源。若婆羅門不劫掠我使人，豈為俘虜耶？昔中山以貪寶取弊，蜀侯以金牛致滅，莫不由之。」拜玄策朝散大夫。是時就其國得方土那羅邇娑婆寐，自言壽二百歲，云有長生之術。太宗深加禮敬，館之於金飈門內。造延年之藥。令兵部尚書崔敦禮監主之，發使天下，採諸奇藥異石，不可稱數。延歷歲月，藥成，服竟不效，後放還本國。太宗之葬昭陵也，刻石像阿羅那順之形，列於玄闕之下。

五天竺所屬之國數十，風俗物產略同。有伽沒路國，其俗開東門以向日。王玄策至，其王發使貢以奇珍異物及地圖，因請老子像及《道德經》。那揭陀國，有醯羅城，中有重閣，藏佛頂骨及錫杖。貞觀二十年，遣使貢方物。天授二年，東天竺王摩羅枝摩、西天竺王尸羅逸多、南天竺王遮婁其拔羅婆、北天竺王婁其那那、中天竺王地婆西那，並來朝獻。景龍四年，南天竺國復遣使來朝。景雲元年，復遣使貢方物。開元二年，西天竺復遣使貢方物。八年，南天竺國遣使獻五色能言鸚鵡。其年，南天竺國王尸利那羅僧伽請以戰象及兵馬討大食及吐蕃等，仍求有及名其軍。玄宗甚嘉之，名軍為懷德軍。九月，南天竺王尸利那羅僧伽寶多枝摩為國造寺，上表乞寺額，敕以歸化為名賜之。十一月，遣使冊利那羅伽寶多為南天竺國王，遣使來朝。十七年六月，北天竺國（三）藏沙門僧密多獻質汗等藥。十九年十月，中天竺國王伊沙伏摩遣其大德僧來朝貢。二十九年三月，中天竺王子李承恩來朝，授遊擊將軍，放還。天寶中，累遣使來。

### 罽賓國

罽賓國，在蔥嶺南，去京師萬二千二百里。常役屬於大月氏。其地暑濕，人皆乘象，土宜秔稻，草木淩寒不死。其俗尤信佛法。隋煬帝時，引致西域，前後至者三十餘國，唯罽賓不至。

貞觀十一年，遣使獻名馬，太宗嘉其誠款，賜以繒彩。十六年，又遣使獻褥特鼠，喙尖而尾赤，能食蛇，有被蛇螫者，鼠輒嗅而尿之，其瘡立愈。顯慶三年，訪其國俗，云「王始祖馨孽，至今曷擷支，父子傳位，已十二代。」其年，改其城為修鮮都督府。龍朔初，授其王修鮮等十一州諸軍事兼修鮮都督。

開元七年，遣使來朝，進天文經一夾、秘要方並蕃藥等物，詔遣冊其王為葛羅達支特勒。二十七年，其王烏散特勒灑以年老，上表請以子拂菻罽婆嗣位，許之，仍降使冊命。天寶四年，又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王，仍授左驍衛將軍。乾元元年，又遣使朝貢。

### 勃律國

又有勃律國，在罽賓、吐蕃之間。開元中頻遣使朝獻。八年，冊立其王蘇麟陀逸之為勃律國王，朝貢不絕。二十二年，為吐蕃所破。

### 康國

康國，即漢康居之國也。其王姓溫，月氏人也。先居張掖祁連山北昭武城，為突厥所破，南依蔥嶺，遂有其地。枝庶皆以昭武為姓氏，不忘本也。其人皆深目高鼻，多須髯。丈夫翦髮或辮髮。其王冠氈帽。飾以金寶。婦人盤髻，幪以皁巾，飾以金花。人多嗜酒，好歌舞於道路。生子必以石蜜內口中，明膠置掌內，欲其成長口常甘言，掌持錢如膠之黏物。俗習胡書。善商賈，爭分銖之利。男子年二十，即遠之旁國，來適中夏，利之所在，無所不到。以十二月為歲首，有婆羅門為之占星候氣，以定吉兇。頗有佛法。至十一月，鼓舞乞寒，以水相潑，盛為戲樂。

隋煬帝時，其王屈術支娶西突厥葉護可汗女，遂臣於西突厥。武德十年，屈術支遣使獻名馬。貞觀九年，又遣使貢獅子，太宗嘉其遠至，命秘書監虞世南為之賦，自此朝貢歲至。十一年，又獻金桃、銀桃，詔令植之於苑囿。

萬歲通天年，則天封其大首領篤婆缽提為康國王，仍拜左驍衛大將軍。缽提尋卒，又冊其子泥涅師師為康國王。師師以神龍中卒，國人又立突昏為王。開元六年，遣使貢獻鎖子甲、水精杯、馬腦瓶、駝鳥卵及越諾之類。十九年，其王烏勒上表，請封其子咄曷為曹國王，默啜為米國王，許之。二十七年，烏勒卒，遣使冊咄曷襲父位。天寶三年，又封為欽化王，其母可敦封為郡夫人。十一載、十三載，並遣使朝貢。

### 波斯國

波斯國，在京師西一萬五千三百里，東與吐火羅、康國接，北鄰突厥之可薩部，西北拒拂菻，正西及南俱臨大海。戶數十萬。其王居有二城，復有大城十餘，猶中國之離宮。其王初嗣位，便密選子才堪承統者，書其名字，封而藏之。王死後，大臣與王之群子共發封而視之，奉所書名者為主焉。其王冠金花冠，坐獅子床，服錦袍，加以瓔珞。俗事天地日月水火之諸神，西域諸胡事火祅者，皆詣波斯受法焉。其事神，以麝香和蘇塗須點額，及於耳鼻，用以為敬，拜必交股。文字同於諸胡。男女皆徒跣。丈夫翦髮，戴白皮帽，衣不開襟，並有巾帔，多用蘇方青白色為之，兩邊緣以織成錦。婦人亦巾帔裙衫，辮髮垂後，飾以金銀，其國乘象而戰，每一象，戰士百人，有敗恤者則盡殺之。國人生女，年十歲已上有姿貌者，其王收而養之，以賞有功之臣。俗右尊而左卑。以六月一日為歲首。斷獄不為文書約束，口決於庭。其系囚無年限，唯王者代立則釋之。其叛逆之罪，就火祅燒鐵灼其舌，瘡白者為理直，瘡黑者為有罪。其刑有斷手、刖足、髡鉗、劓刖，輕罪翦鬚，或繋牌於項以誌之，經時月而釋焉。其強盜一入獄，至老更不出，小盜罰以銀錢。死亡則棄之於山，制服一月而即吉。氣候暑熱，土地寬平，知耕種，多畜牧，有鳥形如橐駝，飛不能高，食草及肉，亦能噉犬攫羊，土人極以為患。又多白馬、駿犬，或赤日行七百里者駮，金犬今所謂波斯犬也。出䮫及大驢、師子、白象、珊瑚樹高一二尺，琥珀、車渠、瑪瑙、火珠、玻璃、琉璃、無食子、香附子、訶黎勒、胡椒、蓽撥、石蜜、千年棗、甘露桃。

隋大業末，西突厥葉護可汗頻擊破其國，波斯王庫薩和為西突厥所殺，其子施利立，葉護因分其部帥，監統其國，波斯竟臣於葉護。及葉護可汗死，其所令監統者因自擅於波斯，不復役屬於西突厥。施利立一年卒，乃立庫薩和之女為王，突厥又殺之。施利之子單羯方奔拂菻，於是國人迎而立之，是為尹恆支，在位二年而卒。兄子伊嗣候立。

二十一年，伊嗣候遣使獻一獸，名活褥蛇，形類鼠而色青，身長八九寸，能入穴取鼠。伊嗣候懦弱，為大首領所逐，遂奔吐火羅，未至，亦為大食兵所殺。其子名卑路斯，又投吐火羅葉護，獲免。卑路斯龍朔元年奏言頻被大食侵擾，請兵救援。詔遣隴州南由縣令王名遠充使西域，分置州縣，因列其地疾陵城為波斯都督府，授卑路斯為都督。是後數遣使貢獻。咸亨中，卑路斯自來入朝，高宗甚加恩賜，拜右武衛將軍。

儀鳳三年，令吏部侍郎裴行儉將兵冊送卑路斯為波斯王，行儉以其路遠，至安西碎葉而還，卑路斯獨返，不得入其國，漸為大食所侵，客於吐火羅國二十餘年，有部落數千人，後漸離散。至景龍二年，又來入朝，拜為左威衛將軍，無何病卒，其國遂滅，而部眾猶存。

自開元十年至天寶六載，凡十遣使來朝，並獻方物。四月，遣使獻瑪瑙床。九年四月，獻火毛繡舞筵、長毛繡舞筵、無孔真珠。乾元元年，波斯與大食同寇廣州，劫倉庫，焚廬舍，浮海而去。大曆六年，遣使來朝，獻真珠等。

### 拂菻國

拂菻國，一名大秦，在西海之上，東南與波斯接，地方萬餘里，列城四百，邑居連屬。其宮宇柱櫳，多以水精琉璃為之。有貴臣十二人共治國政，常使一人將囊隨王車，百姓有事者，即以書投囊中，王還宮省發，理其枉直。其王無常人，簡賢者而立之。國中災異及風雨不時，輒廢而更立。其王冠形如鳥舉翼，冠及瓔珞，皆綴以珠寶，著錦繡衣，前不開襟，坐金花床。有一鳥似鵝，其毛綠色，常在王邊倚枕上坐，每進食有毒，其鳥輒鳴。其都城疊石為之，尤絕高峻，凡有十萬餘戶，南臨大海。城東面有大門，其高二十餘丈，自上及下，飾以黃金，光輝燦爛，連曜數里。自外至王室，凡有大門三重，列異寶雕飾。第二門之樓中，懸一大金秤，以金丸十二枚屬於衡端，以候日之十二時焉；為一金人，其大如人，立於側，每至一時，其金丸輒落，鏗然發聲，引唱以紀日時，毫厘無失。其殿以瑟瑟為柱，黃金為地，象牙為門扇，香木為棟梁。其俗無瓦，搗白石為末，羅之塗屋上，其堅密光潤，還如玉石。至於盛暑之節，人厭囂熱，乃引水潛流，上遍於屋宇，機制巧密，人莫之知。觀者惟聞屋上泉鳴，俄見四檐飛溜，懸波如瀑，激氣成涼風，其巧妙如此。

風俗，男子翦髮，披帔而右袒，婦人不開襟，錦為頭巾。家資滿億，封以上位。有羊羔生於土中，其國人候其欲萌，乃築墻以院之，防外獸所食也。然其臍與地連，割之則死，唯人著甲走馬及擊鼓以駭之，其羔警鳴而臍絕，便遂水草。俗皆髡而衣繡，乘輜軿白蓋小車，出入擊鼓，建旌旗幡幟。土多金銀奇寶，有夜光璧、明月珠、駭雞犀、大貝、車渠、瑪瑙、孔翠、珊瑚、琥珀，凡西域諸珍異多出其國。隋煬帝常將通拂菻，竟不能致。

貞觀十七年，拂菻王波多力遣使獻赤玻璃、綠金精等物，太宗降璽書答慰，賜以綾綺焉。自大食強盛，漸陵諸國，乃遣大將軍摩栧伐其都城，因約為和好，請每歲輸之金帛，遂臣屬大食焉。乾封二年，遣使獻底也伽。大足元年，復遣使來朝。開元七年正月，其主遣吐火羅大首領獻獅子、羚羊各二。不數月，又遣大德僧來朝貢。

### 大食國

大食國，本在波斯之西。大業中，有波斯胡人牧駝於俱紛摩地那之山，忽有獅子人語謂之曰：「此山西有三穴，穴中大有兵器，汝可取之。穴中並有黑石白文，讀之便作王位。」胡人依言，果見穴中有石及槊刃甚多，上有文，教其反叛。於是糾合亡命，渡恆曷水，劫奪商旅，其眾漸盛，遂割據波斯西境，自立為王。波斯、拂菻各遣兵討之，皆為所敗。

永徽二年，始遣使朝貢。其王姓大食氏，名噉密莫末膩，自云有國已三十四年，歷三主矣。其國男兒色黑多鬚，鼻大而長，似婆羅門；婦人白皙。亦有文字。出駝馬，大於諸國。兵刃勁利。其俗勇於戰鬥，好事天神。土多沙石，不堪耕種，唯食駝馬等肉。俱紛摩地那山在國之西南，鄰於大海，其王移穴中黑石置之於國。又嘗遣人乘船，將衣糧入海，經八年而未及西岸。海中見一方石，石上有樹，幹赤葉青，樹上總生小兒；長六七寸，見人皆笑，動其手腳，頭著樹枝，其使摘取一枝，小兒便死，收在大食王宮。又有女國，在其西北，相去三月行。

龍朔初，擊破波斯，又破拂菻，始有米麪之屬。又將兵南侵婆羅門，吞並諸胡國，勝兵四十餘萬。長安中，遣使獻良馬。景雲二年，又獻方物。開元初，遣使來朝，進馬及寶鈿帶等方物。其使謁見，唯平立不拜，憲司欲糾之，中書令張說奏曰：「大食殊俗，慕義遠來，不可置罪。」上特許之。尋又遣使朝獻，自云在本國惟拜天神，雖見王亦無致拜之法，所司屢詰責之，其使遂請依漢法致拜。其時西域康國、石國之類，皆臣屬之。其境東西萬里，東與突騎施相接焉。

一云隋開皇中，大食族中有孤列種代為酋長，孤列種中又有兩姓：一號盆泥奚深，一號盆泥末換。其奚深後有摩訶末者，勇健多智，眾立之為主，東西征伐，開地三千里，兼克夏臘，一名釤城（釤音所鑒反）。摩訶末後十四代，至末換。末換殺其兄伊疾而自立，復殘忍，其下怨之。有呼羅珊木粗人並波悉林舉義兵，應者悉令著黑衣，旬月間眾盈數萬。鼓行而西，生擒末換，殺之。遂求得奚深種阿蒲羅拔，立之。末換已前謂之「白衣大食」，自阿蒲羅拔後改為「黑衣大食」。阿蒲羅拔卒，立其弟阿蒲恭拂。至德初遣使朝貢，代宗時為元帥，亦用其國兵以收兩都。

寶應、大曆中頻遣使來。恭拂卒，子迷地立。迷地卒，子牟棲立，牟棲卒，弟訶論立。貞元中，與吐蕃為勍敵。蕃軍太半西禦大食，故鮮為邊患，其力不足也。十四年，詔以黑衣大食使含嵯、焉雞、沙北三人並為中郎將，各放還蕃。

### 史臣曰

史臣曰：西方之國，綿亙山川，自張騫奉使已來，介子立功之後，通於中國者多矣。有唐拓境，遠極安西，弱者德以懷之，強者力以制之。開元之前，貢輸不絕。天寶之亂，邊僥多虞，邠郊之西，即為戎狄，槁街之邸，來朝亦稀。故古先哲王，務寧華夏，語曰：「近者悅，遠者來。」斯之謂矣！

贊曰：大蒙之人，西方之國，與時盛衰，隨世通塞。勿謂戎心，不懷我德；貞觀、開元，槁街充斥。

Source Colophon

The Classical Chinese source body was extracted from the local source-text page Good Works Library Ready/Scythian/Expansion Bench 2026-05-11/Jiu Tang Shu -- Western Rong -- Classical Chinese Source Text.md and copied for this translation pass at Tulku/Tools/scythian/sources/expansion_bench_2026-05-11/jiu_tangshu_western_rong_chinese_source_manual105.txt.

The local source page identifies its inspection route as Wikisource raw text for Jiu Tang Shu, volume 198.

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