Maodun, Heqin, Han War, and Steppe Kingship

This is a Good Works Translation produced by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese text of Sima Qian's Shiji, chapter 110, the Xiongnu Liezhuan.

The chapter is the classic Chinese historical account of Xiongnu origins, pastoral mobility, mounted archery, Maodun's seizure of power, steppe institutions, Han-Xiongnu treaty politics, Zhonghang Yue's defense of Xiongnu custom, the Mayi trap, Emperor Wu's northern war, frontier envoys, Surrender City, and Sima Qian's closing judgment.

For the Scythian shelf, Shiji 110 is not a claim that the Xiongnu simply are Scythians. It is the eastern steppe archive in its own language and political grammar, indispensable for any serious Central Eurasian library that follows pastoral empires, frontier diplomacy, mounted warfare, and the ways sedentary states described the peoples beyond their walls.

The English translation was newly made from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. Existing English displays and translations were used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Translation

Origins, Maodun, and the First Han Treaty

The Xiongnu, in their earliest ancestry, were descendants of the line of the Xia sovereigns. Their ancestor was called Chunwei. Before the age of Tang and Yu there were the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunyu, who dwelt among the northern peoples and moved about following their herds.

The animals they had in greatest number were horses, cattle, and sheep. Their unusual animals were camels, donkeys, mules, swift horses, fine wild horses, and mixed breeds. They moved after water and grass. They had no walled cities, no fixed dwellings, and no regular business of ploughing fields, yet each group had its own apportioned land. They had no written documents; by spoken words they made their bonds.

A child could ride a sheep and draw a bow to shoot birds and mice. When he grew a little older he shot foxes and hares and used them for food. Men strong enough to draw the bow all became armored riders. In quiet times, according to their custom, they followed the herds and lived by shooting and hunting birds and beasts. In urgent times the men practiced war and attack, invading and striking. This was their nature.

Their long weapons were bows and arrows; their short weapons were knives and spears. When advantage was present they advanced. When it was not, they withdrew, and felt no shame in flight. Wherever advantage lay, they knew nothing of ritual or righteousness. From the ruler downward, all ate the flesh of their herds, wore hides and leather, and wrapped themselves in felt and fur. The strong ate the fat and good portions; the old ate what was left. They honored vigor and strength and despised age and weakness. When a father died, a son married his stepmother; when brothers died, the surviving brothers took their wives. By their custom they had personal names without taboo, and no family names or courtesy names.

When the way of the Xia declined, Gong Liu lost his office over the grains, changed among the western Rong, and settled at Bin. More than three hundred years later, the Rong and Di attacked Great King Danfu. Danfu fled to the foot of Qi, and the people of Bin all followed him there and made the Zhou. More than a hundred years later, Chang, the Earl of the West of Zhou, attacked the Quan Yi. More than ten years after that, King Wu attacked Zhou of Shang and built the settlement at Luo. He then returned to Feng and Hao, drove the Rong and Yi north of the Jing and Luo rivers, and ordered them to come with tribute at their seasons. This was called the "outer service."

More than two hundred years later, the way of Zhou declined. King Mu attacked the Quanrong and returned with four white wolves and four white deer. After this, the outer service no longer came. Then Zhou made the punishments of Fu.

More than two hundred years after King Mu, King You of Zhou, because of his favored concubine Bao Si, had a breach with the Marquis of Shen. The Marquis of Shen became angry and joined with the Quanrong to attack and kill King You of Zhou below Mount Li. They then took Zhou's Jiaohuo and dwelt between the Jing and Wei rivers, invading and ravaging the Middle States.

Duke Xiang of Qin rescued Zhou. Then King Ping of Zhou left Feng and Hao and moved east to Luo. At that time Duke Xiang of Qin attacked the Rong as far as Qi and first took his place among the feudal lords.

Sixty-five years later, the Shanrong crossed Yan and attacked Qi. Duke Xi of Qi fought them in the outskirts of Qi. Forty-four years after that, the Shanrong attacked Yan. Yan reported its distress to Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi campaigned north against the Shanrong; the Shanrong fled.

More than twenty years after that, the Rong and Di came to Luo, attacked King Xiang of Zhou, and King Xiang fled to Fan in Zheng. At first King Xiang of Zhou had wanted to attack Zheng, and therefore had taken a Rong-Di woman as his queen and used Rong-Di troops together with his own to attack Zheng. Later he dismissed the Di queen. The Di queen resented it, and King Xiang's stepmother, Queen Hui, had a son, Prince Dai, whom she wanted to set up. Therefore Queen Hui, the Di queen, and Prince Dai acted as an inner party and opened the way to the Rong and Di. Because of this the Rong and Di were able to enter, defeat and drive out King Xiang of Zhou, and set up Prince Dai as Son of Heaven.

Then some of the Rong and Di dwelt at Luhun, and eastward they reached as far as Wei, plundering and violently oppressing the Middle States. The Middle States hated them; therefore the poets sang, "The Rong and Di must be answered," "We thinly strike the Xianyun, reaching to Taiyuan," and "The wagons go forth in ranks; build those northern walls."

After King Xiang of Zhou had lived outside for four years, he sent envoys to report his distress to Jin. Duke Wen of Jin had newly taken power and wished to cultivate the work of hegemony. He therefore raised an army, attacked and drove out the Rong and Di, executed Prince Dai, and escorted King Xiang of Zhou back inside to dwell at Luo.

At that time Qin and Jin were strong states. Duke Wen of Jin repelled the Rong and Di and settled between the Wei and Luo west of the Yellow River. They were called the Red Di and the White Di. Duke Mu of Qin obtained You Yu, and the eight states of the Western Rong submitted to Qin. Thus west of Long there were the Rong of Mianzhu, Gunrong, Di, and Yuan; north of Qi, Liangshan, Jing, and Qi there were the Rong of Yiqu, Dali, Wushi, and Quyan. North of Jin were the Rong of Linhu and Loufan; north of Yan were the Donghu and Shanrong. They lived scattered through ravines and valleys, each with its own chiefs. Often more than a hundred Rong groups gathered together, yet none could unite them.

More than a hundred years after this, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to make peace with the Rong and Di, and the Rong and Di came to court at Jin. More than a hundred years later, Xiangzi of Zhao crossed Juzhu, destroyed Bing and Dai, and came down upon the Hu and Mo. After Zhao joined Han and Wei in destroying Zhi Bo and dividing the lands of Jin, Zhao held Dai and the lands north of Juzhu, while Wei held Hexi and Shangjun, bordering the Rong.

Later the Rong of Yiqu built walls and fortifications to defend themselves, but Qin gradually ate them away. By the time of King Hui, Qin seized twenty-five Yiqu cities. King Hui attacked Wei, and Wei gave all of Xihe and Shangjun to Qin. In the time of King Zhao of Qin, the Rong king of Yiqu had illicit relations with Queen Dowager Xuan and had two sons by her. Queen Dowager Xuan deceived and killed the Rong king of Yiqu at Ganquan, then raised an army, attacked, and broke Yiqu. After this Qin held Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun, and built the Long Wall to resist the Hu.

King Wuling of Zhao also changed the customs of his state, adopted Hu clothing, and practiced riding and shooting. In the north he broke Linhu and Loufan. He built a Long Wall from Dai along the foot of Yinshan to Gaoque as a barrier, and established the commanderies of Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Dai.

Later Yan had a worthy general, Qin Kai, who had been a hostage among the Hu. The Hu trusted him deeply. When he returned, he attacked and routed the Donghu, driving them back more than a thousand li. Qin Wuyang, who joined Jing Ke in stabbing the king of Qin, was Qin Kai's grandson. Yan also built a Long Wall from Zaoyang to Xiangping and established the commanderies of Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, and Liaodong in order to resist the Hu.

At that time there were seven warring states of cap and girdle, and three of them bordered the Xiongnu. Later, in the time of the Zhao general Li Mu, the Xiongnu did not dare enter the Zhao frontier. After Qin destroyed the six states, the First Emperor sent Meng Tian to command a multitude of a hundred thousand men and strike the Hu in the north. He took all the land south of the Yellow River. He used the river as a barrier, built forty-four county towns facing the river, and moved convicts and garrison men there to fill them. He also opened the Straight Road from Jiuyuan to Yunyang. Taking the mountains, passes, ravines, and valleys along the frontier where they could be repaired, he put them in order, beginning at Lintao and reaching Liaodong, more than ten thousand li. He also crossed the river and occupied Yangshan and Beijiazhong.

At that time the Donghu were strong, and the Yuezhi were flourishing. The Xiongnu chanyu was named Touman. Touman could not overcome Qin and moved north. More than ten years later Meng Tian died, the feudal lords rebelled against Qin, and the Middle States were thrown into disorder. All those whom Qin had moved as convict garrisons to the frontier went back. Then the Xiongnu found room again and gradually crossed back south of the Yellow River, bordering the Middle States along the old frontier barriers.

The chanyu had a crown prince named Maodun. Later he had a beloved yanzhi who bore him a younger son, and the chanyu wanted to depose Maodun and set up the younger son. He therefore sent Maodun as a hostage to the Yuezhi. After Maodun had become a hostage among the Yuezhi, Touman suddenly attacked the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi wanted to kill Maodun, but Maodun stole one of their good horses, mounted it, and escaped home. Touman considered him brave and ordered him to command ten thousand cavalry.

Maodun then made whistling arrows and drilled his mounted archers. He gave the order: "Whoever does not shoot at whatever the whistling arrow shoots shall be beheaded." When they went hunting birds and beasts, any man who did not shoot at what the whistling arrow shot was immediately beheaded.

After a time Maodun shot a whistling arrow at his own good horse. Some of his attendants did not dare shoot it, and Maodun at once beheaded those who had not shot the good horse. A little later he again shot a whistling arrow at his beloved wife. Some of his attendants were very afraid and did not dare shoot, and Maodun again beheaded them. After another short time Maodun went out hunting and shot the chanyu's good horse with a whistling arrow. All his attendants shot it. Then Maodun knew that his attendants could be used.

He went hunting with his father, the chanyu Touman, and shot Touman with a whistling arrow. His attendants also followed the whistling arrow and shot and killed the chanyu Touman. Then Maodun put to death his stepmother, his younger brother, and all the great ministers who did not obey him. Maodun set himself up as chanyu.

After Maodun was established, the Donghu were strong and flourishing. Hearing that Maodun had killed his father and set himself up, they sent envoys to tell Maodun that they wanted the thousand-li horse that Touman had possessed. Maodun asked his assembled ministers. They all said, "The thousand-li horse is a treasured horse of the Xiongnu. Do not give it." Maodun said, "How can one live beside a neighboring state and cherish one horse?" He gave them the thousand-li horse.

A little later the Donghu thought Maodun was afraid of them. They sent envoys to tell Maodun that they wanted one of the chanyu's yanzhi. Maodun again asked those around him. They all grew angry and said, "The Donghu have no way. They even ask for a yanzhi. Let us attack them." Maodun said, "How can one live beside a neighboring state and cherish one woman?" He took his beloved yanzhi and gave her to the Donghu.

The king of the Donghu became still more arrogant and invaded westward. Between the Donghu and the Xiongnu there was abandoned land, more than a thousand li, with no one living there. Each occupied its own edge as an outpost zone. The Donghu sent envoys to Maodun saying, "The abandoned land outside the outposts that mark the boundary between the Xiongnu and us is not something the Xiongnu can reach. We want to possess it."

Maodun asked his assembled ministers. Some said, "This is abandoned land. It may be given, or it may be withheld." Then Maodun was furious and said, "Land is the root of the state. How can it be given away?" He beheaded all who had said to give it. Maodun mounted his horse and ordered that anyone in the state who came late should be beheaded. Then he attacked the Donghu in the east. At first the Donghu had made light of Maodun and had not prepared. When Maodun came with his army, he struck them, greatly defeated and destroyed the Donghu king, and captured his people and livestock.

After he returned, he struck westward and drove off the Yuezhi. To the south he annexed the Loufan and the King of Baiyang south of the Yellow River. He recovered all the Xiongnu lands that Meng Tian, sent by Qin, had taken, joined the old Qin-Han frontier barriers south of the Yellow River, reached Chaona and Fushi, and then invaded Yan and Dai. At that time the Han armies were confronting Xiang Yu and the Middle States were exhausted by war. Because of this Maodun was able to strengthen himself. His men who drew the bow numbered more than three hundred thousand.

From Chunwei down to Touman there had been more than a thousand years. At times they were large, at times small; they separated, scattered, and divided. It was long ago, and their hereditary succession cannot be arranged in order. But when Maodun came, the Xiongnu became most powerful. They made all the northern Yi submit, and in the south they became an enemy state to the Middle States. Their hereditary offices and titles can therefore be recorded.

They established left and right Worthy Kings, left and right Guli Kings, left and right great generals, left and right great commandants, left and right great danghu, and left and right gudu marquises. The Xiongnu called "worthy" tuqi; therefore they commonly made the crown prince the Left Tuqi King. From the left and right Worthy Kings down to the danghu, the larger commands had ten thousand cavalry and the smaller several thousand. Altogether there were twenty-four chiefs, whose title was "Ten-Thousand Cavalry." All the great ministers held hereditary offices. The Huyan clan, the Lan clan, and later the Xubu clan were the three noble lineages.

The kings and commanders of the left side dwelt in the east, facing the region from Shanggu onward, adjoining Huimo and Chaoxian to the east. The kings and commanders of the right side dwelt in the west, facing the region from Shangjun westward, adjoining the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang. The chanyu's court faced Dai and Yunzhong. Each had divided lands and moved after water and grass. The left and right Worthy Kings and the left and right Guli Kings were the greatest offices, and the left and right gudu marquises assisted in government. Each of the twenty-four chiefs also appointed its own thousand-commanders, hundred-commanders, ten-commanders, subordinate lesser kings, ministers, commandants enfeoffed as duwei, danghu, and juqu.

In the first month of the year, the chiefs held a small meeting at the chanyu's court and performed sacrifice. In the fifth month they held a great meeting at Longcheng, sacrificing to their ancestors, to Heaven and Earth, and to the spirits. In autumn, when the horses were fat, they held a great meeting at Dailin and reviewed the counts of men and livestock.

By their law, anyone who drew a blade a chi long was put to death. One convicted of theft had his household confiscated. For lesser crimes the face was cut; for greater crimes the penalty was death. A lawsuit held over for a long time did not exceed ten days, and in the whole state the prisoners were no more than a few persons.

When the chanyu left the camp in the morning he bowed to the rising sun; in the evening he bowed to the moon. In seating, the place of honor was on the left and faced north. For days they honored wu and ji. In burying the dead they had inner and outer coffins, gold, silver, clothing, and furs, but no mound, trees, or mourning garments. Favored ministers, concubines, and attendants followed the dead in death, sometimes numbering several hundreds or even thousands.

When they undertook affairs, they watched the stars and moon. When the moon was full and strong, they attacked and fought; when the moon waned, they withdrew the troops. In their attacks and battles, one who cut off a head or captured a prisoner was given a cup of wine, and the plunder he had taken was given to him. Those who captured people made them slaves. Thus in battle every man sought profit for himself, and they were skilled at using decoy troops to draw the enemy on. When they saw the enemy they pursued advantage like birds gathering; when they were hard pressed and defeated, they broke apart and scattered like tiles and clouds. A man who carried back a fallen comrade in battle received all the property of the dead man's household.

Later, in the north, they made the states of Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli submit. Then the Xiongnu nobles and great ministers all submitted and regarded Maodun Chanyu as worthy.

At this time Han had only just settled the Middle States. It moved King Xin of Han to Dai, with his capital at Mayi. The Xiongnu attacked Mayi in force and surrounded it, and King Xin of Han surrendered to the Xiongnu. Having obtained Xin, the Xiongnu then led their troops south across Juzhu, attacked Taiyuan, and came below Jinyang.

The Gao Emperor personally led troops to strike them. It happened to be winter, with bitter cold, rain, and snow, and two or three in ten of the soldiers lost fingers to the cold. Then Maodun pretended defeat and retreated, luring the Han troops. The Han troops pursued and struck at Maodun. Maodun concealed his picked troops and showed only his weak ones. Then Han brought up all its troops, mostly infantry, three hundred and twenty thousand men, and pursued them north. The Gao Emperor arrived first at Pingcheng, before all the infantry had come up. Maodun released four hundred thousand picked cavalry and surrounded the Gao Emperor at Baideng. For seven days the Han troops inside and outside could not rescue or supply one another.

Among the Xiongnu cavalry, the western side was entirely white horses, the eastern side entirely gray-blue horses, the northern side entirely black horses, and the southern side entirely red horses. The Gao Emperor then sent envoys in secret with generous gifts to the yanzhi. The yanzhi said to Maodun, "Two rulers should not distress one another. If you now obtain Han land, in the end you, chanyu, will not be able to dwell there. Moreover the Han king has a spirit about him. Chanyu, examine this." Maodun had made an agreement with Wang Huang and Zhao Li, generals of King Xin of Han, but Huang and Li's troops did not arrive. Suspecting that they had a plot with Han, and also accepting the words of the yanzhi, he opened one corner of the encirclement.

Then the Gao Emperor ordered his soldiers all to hold their bows fully drawn, with arrows fitted and facing outward, and to go straight out through the opened corner. At last he joined the main army, and Maodun led his troops away. Han also withdrew its troops and stopped the campaign, sending Liu Jing to conclude a heqin agreement.

After this, King Xin of Han became a Xiongnu commander, and with Zhao Li, Wang Huang, and others repeatedly broke the agreement and raided Dai and Yunzhong. Not long afterward Chen Xi rebelled and also plotted with Han Xin to strike Dai. Han sent Fan Kuai to attack them and again seized the commanderies and counties of Dai, Yanmen, and Yunzhong, but did not go out beyond the passes.

At that time the Xiongnu, because many Han generals had gone over and surrendered to them, often came and went raiding the lands of Dai under Maodun. Han was troubled by this. The Gao Emperor therefore sent Liu Jing to present a princess of the imperial clan as yanzhi to the chanyu, and each year sent the Xiongnu fixed amounts of floss silk, patterned silk, wine, rice, and foodstuffs. They made an agreement to be elder and younger brothers through heqin, and only then did Maodun somewhat stop. Later King Lu Wan of Yan rebelled and led several thousand of his followers to surrender to the Xiongnu, coming and going to harass the lands east of Shanggu.

When Gaozu died, during the times of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lu, Han had only recently become settled, and so the Xiongnu were arrogant. Maodun then sent a letter to Empress Gao and spoke wildly. Empress Gao wanted to attack him. The generals said, "Even with the wisdom and martial power of the Gao Emperor, he was still put in distress at Pingcheng." Therefore Empress Gao stopped and again made heqin with the Xiongnu.

When Emperor Wen first came to the throne, he again repaired the business of heqin. In the fifth month of his third year, the Xiongnu Right Worthy King entered and occupied the land south of the Yellow River, raided the protected frontier peoples of Shangjun, and killed and carried off people. Emperor Wen therefore ordered the chancellor Guan Ying to mobilize eighty-five thousand chariots and cavalry, proceed to Gaonu, and strike the Right Worthy King. The Right Worthy King fled out beyond the passes. Emperor Wen went to Taiyuan. At that time the king of Jibei rebelled; Emperor Wen returned and dismissed the chancellor's troops that had been striking the Hu.

Heqin, Zhonghang Yue, and Mayi

The next year the chanyu sent a letter to Han, saying: "The great chanyu of the Xiongnu, established by Heaven, respectfully asks whether the emperor is without illness. Formerly the emperor spoke of heqin. The meaning of the letter was fitting, and there was mutual joy. Han frontier officials encroached upon and insulted the Right Worthy King. The Right Worthy King did not ask permission, but listened to the plans of Hou Yilu and the Nan clan and opposed the Han officials, cutting off the agreement of the two rulers and separating the kinship of elder and younger brothers.

"The emperor's reproving letter arrived twice. We sent an envoy with a letter in reply, but he did not come back; Han envoys did not arrive. Because of this Han was not at peace and the neighboring states did not attach themselves. Now, because lesser officials ruined the agreement, I punished the Right Worthy King and sent him west to seek out and attack the Yuezhi. By Heaven's blessing, the officers and soldiers were good and the horses strong, and we destroyed the Yuezhi as barbarians, killing, beheading, subduing, and receiving their surrender.

"We settled Loulan, Wusun, Hujie, and the twenty-six neighboring states around them, all of which have become Xiongnu. All the peoples who draw the bow have been joined into one family. The northern region is settled. I wish to put soldiers to rest, nourish the horses, set aside former matters, and restore the old agreement, so as to bring peace to the frontier people and answer the beginning of antiquity, letting the young complete their growth, the old rest in their places, and generation after generation have peace and joy.

"I have not yet received the emperor's intention. Therefore I send Gentleman-in-Attendance Xiyu Qian to present this letter and ask. I offer one camel, two riding horses, and two teams of four harness horses. If the emperor does not wish the Xiongnu to come near the passes, then let him order the officials and people to live farther away. When the envoy arrives, send him back at once."

The letter came in the middle of the sixth month to the place of Xinwang. When it arrived, Han debated whether it would be better to attack or to make heqin. The ministers all said, "The chanyu has newly broken the Yuezhi and rides on victory; he cannot be attacked. Moreover, if we gained Xiongnu land, it would be marsh and salt ground and could not be inhabited. Heqin is very advantageous." Han agreed to it.

In the sixth year of Emperor Wen's earlier reign period, Han sent a letter to the Xiongnu, saying: "The emperor respectfully asks whether the great chanyu of the Xiongnu is without illness. Gentleman-in-Attendance Xiyu Qian brought me your letter, saying: 'The Right Worthy King did not ask permission, but listened to the plans of Hou Yilu and the Nan clan, cut off the agreement of the two rulers, and separated the kinship of elder and younger brothers. Because of this Han was not at peace and the neighboring states did not attach themselves. Now, because lesser officials ruined the agreement, I punished the Right Worthy King and sent him west to attack the Yuezhi, and he has settled them completely. I wish to put soldiers to rest, nourish the horses, set aside former matters, restore the old agreement, and bring peace to the frontier people, so that the young may complete their growth, the old may rest in their places, and generation after generation may have peace and joy.'

"I am very pleased by this. It is the intention of the ancient sage kings. Han and the Xiongnu have made an agreement to be elder and younger brothers, and for this reason what is sent to the chanyu is very generous. Those who double-cross agreements and separate the kinship of elder and younger brothers have usually been among the Xiongnu. Yet the matter of the Right Worthy King happened before the amnesty; chanyu, do not punish him deeply.

"If the chanyu's intention corresponds to the letter, clearly announce it to all your officials, so that there will be no breach of the agreement and there will be good faith. I respectfully follow the chanyu's letter. The envoy says that the chanyu personally led the campaign against the states and achieved merit, and that the work of war was very bitter. I send one embroidered lined robe of figured silk, one embroidered lined long jacket, one brocade-lined robe, one bi-yu garment, one gold-adorned belt, one gold xu-pi ornament, ten bolts of embroidery, thirty bolts of brocade, and forty bolts each of red heavy silk and green silk. I send the Palace Grandee Yi and the Internuncio Jian to deliver them to the chanyu."

After a while Maodun died. His son Jizhu was established, and was titled Laoshang Chanyu.

When Laoshang Jizhu Chanyu had first been established, Emperor Wen again sent a princess of the imperial clan to be yanzhi to the chanyu, and ordered the eunuch Zhonghang Yue, a man of Yan, to accompany the princess as tutor. Yue did not want to go, but Han forced him. Yue said, "If I must go, I will become a danger to Han." When Zhonghang Yue arrived, he surrendered to the chanyu, and the chanyu became very close to him and favored him.

At first the Xiongnu liked Han silk floss, silk fabrics, and foodstuffs. Zhonghang Yue said, "The number of the Xiongnu people cannot equal one commandery of Han. Yet the reason they are strong is that their clothing and food are different, and they do not depend on Han. Now if the chanyu changes the customs and loves Han goods, though Han goods are no more than two parts in ten, the Xiongnu will all turn toward Han. When you obtain Han silk and floss, ride through grass and thorns wearing them, so that the clothing and trousers are all torn, and show that they are not as complete and sound as felt and fur. When you obtain Han foodstuffs, throw them away, to show that they are not as convenient and fine as milk and curds." Then Yue taught those around the chanyu to make written tallies and records, in order to count and assess the people, multitudes, and livestock.

When Han sent letters to the chanyu, the tablets were one chi and one cun long, and the wording said, "The emperor respectfully asks whether the great chanyu of the Xiongnu is without illness," with the gifts and words set out so and so. Zhonghang Yue ordered the chanyu, when sending letters to Han, to use tablets one chi and two cun long, and to make the seals and wrappings all broad, large, and long. The wording was arrogant: "The great chanyu of the Xiongnu, born of Heaven and Earth and set in place by the sun and moon, respectfully asks whether the Han emperor is without illness." The gifts and words were likewise set out so and so.

Some Han envoys said, "The Xiongnu custom despises the old." Zhonghang Yue pressed the Han envoys and said, "In Han custom, when men are mobilized for garrison duty and military service, do their aged parents not take off their own warm, thick, and good things in order to send food and drink along with them to the garrisons?" The Han envoys said, "Yes." Zhonghang Yue said, "The Xiongnu openly make war and attack their business. Their old and weak cannot fight; therefore they give the rich and good food to the strong and vigorous, for the sake of defending themselves. In this way fathers and sons each preserve one another for a long time. How can you say that the Xiongnu slight the old?"

The Han envoys said, "Among the Xiongnu, fathers and sons sleep in the same felt tent. When a father dies, a son marries the stepmother; when brothers die, they take all their wives and marry them. They have no adornment of cap and girdle, no ritual of court and palace."

Zhonghang Yue said, "By the custom of the Xiongnu, people eat the flesh of their herds, drink their liquid, and wear their hides. The herds eat grass and drink water, moving according to the seasons. Therefore in urgency the people practice riding and shooting; in quiet times they delight in having no affairs. Their restraints are light and easy to carry out. Ruler and ministers are simple, and the government of one state is like one body. When fathers, sons, and brothers die, they take the wives and marry them because they hate for the seed and surname to be lost. Therefore, though the Xiongnu are in disorder, they are certain to establish one of the lineage.

"Now the Middle States pretend not to take the wives of fathers and elder brothers, yet their kin grow more distant and then kill one another, even to the point that the surname changes. All this follows from such practices. Moreover, when ritual and righteousness decay, those above and below exchange resentment and accusation; when houses and rooms are carried to an extreme, living strength is certain to be bent down. Men exert themselves ploughing and mulberry-growing in order to seek clothing and food, and build walls and fortifications in order to prepare themselves. Therefore when the people are in urgency they do not practice the works of war, and when they are at ease they are exhausted by labor. Ah, men of earthen houses, look to yourselves and do not make many speeches. Let your chatter be chattering and your muttering be muttering. What use, after all, is a cap?"

From that time afterward, whenever Han envoys wished to debate, Zhonghang Yue would say, "Han envoys, do not speak much. Only see to it that the silk, floss, rice, and malt that Han sends to the Xiongnu are in the proper measure and must be good and fine. What is there to talk about? If what is supplied is complete and good, that is all. If it is incomplete, bitter, or bad, then when autumn has ripened the crops, we will send cavalry galloping over and trample your grain." Day and night he taught the chanyu where to watch for advantage and harm.

In the fourteenth year of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu chanyu entered Chaona and Xiao Pass with a hundred and forty thousand cavalry, killed Ang, commandant of Beidi, and captured very many people, livestock, and goods. He then reached Pengyang. He sent surprise troops in to burn the Huizhong palace, and scouts came as far as Yong and Ganquan.

Then Emperor Wen made the palace commandant Zhou She and the superintendent of the gentlemen Zhang Wu generals, mobilized a thousand chariots and a hundred thousand cavalry, and stationed them beside Chang'an to prepare against the Hu raiders. He appointed Lu Qing, Marquis of Chang, as general of Shangjun; Wei Su, Marquis of Ning, as general of Beidi; Zhou Zao, Marquis of Longlü, as general of Longxi; Zhang Xiangru, Marquis of Dongyang, as grand general; and Dong Chi, Marquis of Cheng, as vanguard general. He mobilized chariots and cavalry on a great scale to go strike the Hu.

The chanyu remained inside the passes for more than a month and then left. Han pursued him out beyond the passes and immediately returned, unable to kill anyone. The Xiongnu became daily more arrogant. Every year they entered the frontier, killing and carrying off many people, livestock, and goods. Yunzhong and Liaodong suffered the worst; in Dai Commandery the losses reached more than ten thousand people. Han was troubled by this and therefore sent envoys with a letter to the Xiongnu. The chanyu also sent a danghu to reply with thanks and again spoke of heqin.

In the second year of Emperor Wen's later reign period, he sent envoys with a letter to the Xiongnu, saying: "The emperor respectfully asks whether the great chanyu of the Xiongnu is without illness. The danghu Qieju Diaoqunan and Gentleman-in-Attendance Han Liao sent me two horses; they have arrived, and I respectfully accept them.

"The former emperor established the rule: north of the Long Wall, the states that draw the bow receive commands from the chanyu; inside the Long Wall, the houses of cap and girdle are governed by me. Let the myriad people plough, weave, shoot, and hunt for clothing and food; let fathers and sons not be separated; let ministers and rulers be at peace with one another; let all be free of violence and rebellion.

"Now I hear that vile and wicked people, greedy for the profit of surrender and advance, doubled against righteousness, cut off the agreement, forgot the lives of the myriad people, and separated the joy of the two rulers. Yet this matter is already in the past. The letter says: 'The two states have made heqin; the two rulers are pleased. Let soldiers and troops rest; let horses be nourished; generation after generation, let there be flourishing and joy, and let all suddenly begin anew.' I am very pleased by this.

"The sage renews himself daily, changes what is done, and begins anew. Let the old find rest and the young grow; let each preserve his head and neck and end the years Heaven has given him. I and the chanyu together follow this way, complying with Heaven and caring for the people, passing it on generation after generation and extending it without end. There is none under Heaven for whom this is not convenient.

"Han and the Xiongnu are neighboring rival states. The Xiongnu dwell in the northern lands, where it is cold and the killing air descends early; therefore I order the officials to send the chanyu every year fixed amounts of glutinous grain, malt, gold, silk fabrics, floss, and other things. Now all under Heaven is greatly at peace, and the myriad people are harmonious and joyful. I and the chanyu are fathers and mothers to them.

"When I think back over former matters, slight things and small causes, and failures in the plans of advisers, are not enough to separate the joy of elder and younger brothers. I have heard that Heaven does not cover partially, and Earth does not bear partially. I and the chanyu should both cast away small matters from the past, tread the great way together, break down former evils, and plan for long duration, making the people of the two states like the children of one family.

"The dark-headed common people, down to fish and turtles, up to flying birds, and all the kinds that move on feet, breathe through beaks, or crawl and stir, all go toward safety and advantage and avoid danger and ruin. Therefore those who come are not stopped; this is the way of Heaven. Let us both set aside former matters. I release fugitive captives; chanyu, do not speak of Zhangni and the others. I have heard that the emperors and kings of antiquity made agreements clearly and did not eat their words. Chanyu, keep this in mind. All under Heaven is greatly at peace. After heqin, if Han does wrong, it will not be first. Chanyu, examine this."

After the chanyu had made the heqin agreement, the emperor issued an edict to the censor, saying: "The great chanyu of the Xiongnu has sent me a letter saying that heqin has been settled. Fugitives are not enough to increase multitudes or enlarge territory. The Xiongnu shall not enter the passes; Han shall not go out beyond the passes. Whoever violates the present agreement shall be killed. This can make long-lasting kinship, leave no later fault, and benefit both sides. I have agreed to it. Publish this throughout the realm, so that all may know it clearly."

Four years later Laoshang Jizhu Chanyu died, and his son Junchen was established as chanyu. After he was established, Emperor Wen again made heqin with the Xiongnu, and Zhonghang Yue again served him.

In the fourth year after Junchen Chanyu was established, the Xiongnu again cut off heqin and entered Shangjun and Yunzhong in great force, thirty thousand cavalry in each place. They killed and carried off very many people and withdrew. Then Han sent three generals to station armies: one garrisoned Beidi, Dai garrisoned Juzhu, and Zhao garrisoned Feihu Pass. Along the frontier each place also held firm in order to prepare against Hu raiders. Han also set up three generals, with armies west of Chang'an at Xiliu, north of the Wei at Jimen, and at Bashang, to prepare against the Hu.

Hu cavalry entered the frontier at Dai and Juzhu, and beacon fires reached Ganquan and Chang'an. After several months, the Han troops arrived at the frontier; the Xiongnu had also gone far from the passes, and the Han troops were likewise dismissed. More than a year later Emperor Wen died and Emperor Jing came to the throne. King Sui of Zhao then secretly sent men to the Xiongnu. When Wu and Chu rebelled, he wanted to join their plot and enter the frontier. Han surrounded and broke Zhao, and the Xiongnu also stopped.

After this, Emperor Jing again made heqin with the Xiongnu, opened frontier markets, gave supplies to the Xiongnu, and sent a princess, as in the old agreement. To the end of Emperor Jing's time, they sometimes entered in small numbers and raided the frontier, but there were no great incursions.

When the present emperor came to the throne, he made clear the restraints of the heqin agreement, treated the Xiongnu generously, opened the frontier markets, and supplied them richly. From the chanyu downward, all the Xiongnu were friendly to Han and came and went beneath the Long Wall.

Han sent Nie Wengyi, a man from Mayi, to secretly bring goods out through Lan and make contact with the Xiongnu. He pretended that he would sell the city of Mayi in order to lure the chanyu. The chanyu believed him and coveted Mayi's goods and property. He therefore entered Wuzhou Pass with a hundred thousand cavalry.

Han placed more than three hundred thousand ambush troops beside Mayi. The censor-in-chief Han Anguo served as protecting general, protecting four generals in ambush for the chanyu. After the chanyu had entered the Han passes and was still more than a hundred li from Mayi, he saw livestock spread through the fields with no one herding them. Finding this strange, he attacked a watch-post.

At that time an officer of the commandant of Yanmen was making his rounds. Seeing the raiders, he had taken shelter in this watch-post and knew the Han military plan. The chanyu captured him and wanted to kill him. The officer then told the chanyu where the Han troops were. The chanyu was greatly startled and said, "I had indeed suspected this." He then led his troops back. When he came out, he said, "That I obtained the commandant's officer was Heaven. Heaven caused you to speak." He made the commandant's officer "Heavenly King."

The Han troops had arranged to let the chanyu enter Mayi and then release the ambush, but the chanyu did not arrive. For this reason the Han troops gained nothing. The Han general Wang Hui's division went out from Dai to strike the Hu baggage train. Hearing that the chanyu had returned and that his troops were many, Wang Hui did not dare go out. Han judged that Hui had originally created the military plan and yet had not advanced, and beheaded him.

From this time afterward the Xiongnu cut off heqin, attacked the passes on the roads, and repeatedly entered and raided the Han frontier, beyond counting. Yet the Xiongnu were greedy, still took pleasure in the frontier markets, and craved Han goods. Han also continued the frontier markets, using them to keep a hold on them.

Wudi's Northern War

In the autumn five years after the Mayi campaign, Han sent four generals, each with ten thousand cavalry, to strike the Hu below the frontier markets. General Wei Qing went out from Shanggu, reached Longcheng, and took seven hundred Hu heads and captives. Gongsun He went out from Yunzhong and gained nothing. Gongsun Ao went out from Dai Commandery and was defeated by the Hu, losing more than seven thousand men. Li Guang went out from Yanmen and was defeated; the Xiongnu captured Guang alive, but Guang later escaped and returned. Han imprisoned Ao and Guang; Ao and Guang redeemed themselves and became commoners.

That winter the Xiongnu repeatedly entered and raided the frontier, and Yuyang suffered especially. Han sent General Han Anguo to garrison Yuyang against the Hu. In the following autumn, twenty thousand Xiongnu cavalry entered Han, killed the governor of Liaoxi, and carried off more than two thousand people. The Hu also entered and defeated the army of the governor of Yuyang, killing more than a thousand men, and surrounded the Han general Anguo. At that time Anguo's thousand cavalry were almost exhausted. When rescue from Yan arrived, the Xiongnu left. The Xiongnu also entered Yanmen and killed and carried off more than a thousand people.

Then Han sent General Wei Qing with thirty thousand cavalry out from Yanmen, and Li Xi out from Dai Commandery, to strike the Hu. They took several thousand heads and captives. The next year Wei Qing again went out westward from Yunzhong to Longxi, struck the Hu kings of Loufan and Baiyang south of the Yellow River, and took several thousand Hu heads and captives, with more than a million cattle and sheep. Then Han took the land south of the Yellow River, built Shuofang, restored the old barriers that Meng Tian had made in Qin times, and used the river as a stronghold. Han also abandoned Zaoyang, the county of Shibi in Shanggu, and gave that land to the Hu. This year was Han's second year of Yuanshuo.

In the winter after this, Junchen Chanyu of the Xiongnu died. Yizhixie, Junchen Chanyu's younger brother and Left Guli King, set himself up as chanyu and attacked and defeated Yudan, the crown prince of Junchen Chanyu. Yudan fled and surrendered to Han. Han enfeoffed Yudan as Marquis of She'an, but after several months he died.

After Yizhixie Chanyu had been established, in that summer several tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry entered and killed Gong You, governor of Dai Commandery, and carried off more than a thousand people. That autumn the Xiongnu again entered Yanmen and killed and carried off more than a thousand people. The next year the Xiongnu again entered Dai Commandery, Dingxiang, and Shangjun, thirty thousand cavalry in each, and killed and carried off several thousand people. The Xiongnu Right Worthy King resented Han's seizure of the land south of the Yellow River and construction of Shuofang. He repeatedly raided the frontier, and when he entered the land south of the Yellow River he disturbed Shuofang, killing and carrying off many officials and people.

In the spring of the following year, Han made Wei Qing grand general and sent him with six generals and more than a hundred thousand men out from Shuofang and Gaoque to strike the Hu. The Right Worthy King thought the Han army could not reach him and drank until he was drunk. The Han troops went six or seven hundred li beyond the passes and surrounded the Right Worthy King at night. The Right Worthy King was greatly startled, slipped away, and fled. His picked cavalry often followed after him. Han obtained fifteen thousand men and women from the Right Worthy King's multitude, and more than ten subordinate lesser kings. That autumn, ten thousand Xiongnu cavalry entered and killed Zhu Ying, commandant of Dai Commandery, and carried off more than a thousand people.

In the next spring, Han again sent Grand General Wei Qing with six generals and more than a hundred thousand cavalry. They went out again several hundred li from Dingxiang to strike the Xiongnu and took, before and after, altogether more than nineteen thousand heads and captives. Han also lost two generals and more than three thousand cavalry. The right general Jian escaped with his own body, but the vanguard general, the Marquis of Xi, Zhao Xin, whose troops had fared badly, surrendered to the Xiongnu.

Zhao Xin was formerly a lesser Hu king who had surrendered to Han, and Han had enfeoffed him as Marquis of Xi. As vanguard general, he and the right general had combined their armies and then marched separately. He alone encountered the chanyu's troops, and therefore his force was entirely lost. After the chanyu obtained the Marquis of Xi, he made him a king next in rank to himself, gave him his elder sister as wife, and plotted with him against Han. Xin taught the chanyu to move farther north beyond the desert, in order to lure and exhaust the Han troops, wait until they were at the extreme limit, and then seize them, not staying near the passes. The chanyu followed his plan. The next year, ten thousand Hu cavalry entered Shanggu and killed several hundred people.

In the spring of the next year, Han sent the cavalry general Qubing with ten thousand cavalry out from Longxi. Passing more than a thousand li beyond Mount Yanzhi, he struck the Xiongnu and took more than eighteen thousand Hu heads and captives, and in the defeat obtained the golden image used by the King of Xiutu in sacrificing to Heaven.

That summer the cavalry general again went out from Longxi and Beidi with the Marquis of Heqi and several tens of thousands of cavalry, marching two thousand li to strike the Xiongnu. He passed Juyan, attacked the Qilian Mountains, and took more than thirty thousand Hu heads and captives, and more than seventy men from subordinate lesser kings downward. At that time the Xiongnu also came and entered Dai Commandery and Yanmen, killing and carrying off several hundred people.

Han sent the Marquis of Bowang and General Li Guang out from Youbeiping to strike the Xiongnu Left Worthy King. The Left Worthy King surrounded General Li. His soldiers, perhaps four thousand men, were nearly exhausted, though the killed and captured among the enemy were more than equal to them. When the army of the Marquis of Bowang arrived in rescue, General Li escaped. Han lost several thousand men. The Marquis of Heqi was late for his rendezvous with the cavalry general, and he and the Marquis of Bowang both deserved death, but redeemed themselves and became commoners.

That autumn the chanyu was angry that the Kings of Hunye and Xiutu, who lived in the west, had allowed Han to kill and capture several tens of thousands of people, and he wanted to summon and execute them. The Kings of Hunye and Xiutu were afraid and plotted to surrender to Han. Han sent the cavalry general to go welcome them. The King of Hunye killed the King of Xiutu and led his combined multitude to surrender to Han. Altogether there were more than forty thousand people, said to be a hundred thousand.

After Han had obtained the King of Hunye, there were fewer Hu raiders in Longxi, Beidi, and Hexi. Han moved poor people from east of the passes to settle the lands taken from the Xiongnu south of the Yellow River and in New Qinzhong, filling them out, and reduced by half the garrison soldiers west of Beidi. The next year the Xiongnu entered Youbeiping and Dingxiang with several tens of thousands of cavalry each, killed and carried off more than a thousand people, and left.

In the spring of the following year, Han made a plan, saying, "The Marquis of Xi, Xin, has planned for the chanyu to dwell north of the desert, thinking Han troops cannot reach him." Therefore Han fed the horses with grain and mobilized a hundred thousand cavalry, with private remount horses numbering altogether a hundred and forty thousand, not counting provisions and baggage. They ordered Grand General Qing and Cavalry General Qubing to divide the army evenly between them. The grand general went out from Dingxiang, the cavalry general from Dai; both had agreed to cross the desert and strike the Xiongnu.

When the chanyu heard of this, he moved his baggage far away and waited north of the desert with picked troops. He fought the Han grand general for one day. At evening a great wind rose. The Han troops released their left and right wings to surround the chanyu. The chanyu, judging for himself that in battle he could not match the Han troops, went off alone with several hundred strong cavalry, broke through the Han encirclement, and fled northwest. The Han troops pursued through the night but could not catch him. On the march they cut off and captured nineteen thousand Xiongnu heads and prisoners, went north as far as Mount Tianyan and Zhao Xin's city, and returned.

When the chanyu fled, his troops were often mixed together with the Han troops, yet they followed the chanyu. For a long time the chanyu did not rejoin his main multitude. His Right Guli King thought the chanyu was dead and set himself up as chanyu. When the true chanyu again obtained his multitude, the Right Guli King gave up the title of chanyu and again became Right Guli King.

The Han cavalry general went out more than two thousand li from Dai and fought the Left Worthy King. The Han troops obtained altogether more than seventy thousand Hu heads and captives, and all the generals under the Left Worthy King fled. The cavalry general performed the feng sacrifice at Mount Langjuxu, performed the shan sacrifice at Guyan, came down to the Han Sea, and returned.

After this the Xiongnu fled far away, and south of the desert there was no royal court. Han crossed the Yellow River from Shuofang westward to Lingju, opened canals and established fields here and there, with fifty or sixty thousand officials, clerks, and soldiers, gradually eating away the land and joining Han territory to the north toward the Xiongnu.

At first, when the two Han generals had gone out in force and surrounded the chanyu, they killed and captured eighty or ninety thousand people, but Han soldiers who died also numbered several tens of thousands, and more than a hundred thousand Han horses died. Although the Xiongnu were afflicted and had gone far away, Han also had few horses and had no means to go again.

The Xiongnu used Zhao Xin's plan and sent envoys to Han with courteous words, requesting heqin. The Son of Heaven sent the matter down for discussion. Some spoke for heqin; others spoke of then making them subjects. Ren Chang, senior clerk to the chancellor, said, "The Xiongnu have newly been broken and are in distress. It should be possible to make them outer vassals, coming to court and making requests at the frontier." Han sent Ren Chang to the chanyu. When the chanyu heard Chang's plan, he was furious and detained him, not sending him back. Before this Han had also had envoys who surrendered to the Xiongnu, and the chanyu would likewise detain Han envoys to match them. Han was just then gathering soldiers and horses again; but it happened that the cavalry general Qubing died, and after this Han did not strike the Hu in the north for a long time.

Envoys, Surrender City, and the Grand Historian's Judgment

After several years, Yizhixie Chanyu died in the thirteenth year of his reign, and his son Wuwei was established as chanyu. This was the third year of Han's Yuanding era. When Wuwei Chanyu was established, the Han Son of Heaven first went out on tours of the commanderies and counties. After this Han was just then punishing the two Yue in the south and did not strike the Xiongnu; the Xiongnu also did not invade the frontier.

In the third year after Wuwei Chanyu was established, Han had already destroyed Southern Yue. It sent He, the former grand coachman, with fifteen thousand cavalry out from Jiuyuan for more than two thousand li. He reached Fujü Well and returned without seeing a single Xiongnu. Han also sent Zhao Ponu, the former Marquis Congpiao, with more than ten thousand cavalry out from Lingju for several thousand li. He reached the Xiongnu River and returned, likewise without seeing a single Xiongnu.

At this time the Son of Heaven toured the frontier and came to Shuofang. He arrayed a hundred and eighty thousand cavalry to display martial discipline, and sent Guo Ji to admonish and inform the chanyu. When Guo Ji arrived among the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu master of guests asked about his mission. Guo Ji was humble in ceremony and spoke pleasant words, saying, "I will see the chanyu and speak by mouth."

When the chanyu saw him, Guo Ji said, "The head of the king of Southern Yue has already been hung at the northern gate-tower of Han. If the chanyu can advance and fight Han, the Son of Heaven is personally commanding troops and waiting at the frontier. If the chanyu cannot, then face south and become a subject of Han. What is the use of fleeing far away and hiding north of the desert, in a cold and bitter land without water or grass?"

When these words were finished the chanyu was furious. He immediately beheaded the master of guests who had introduced Guo Ji, detained Guo Ji without sending him home, and moved him to the shore of the Northern Sea. Yet the chanyu still refused to raid the Han frontier. He rested and nourished his soldiers and horses, practiced shooting and hunting, and repeatedly sent envoys to Han, using courteous words and sweet speech to request heqin.

Han sent Wang Wu and others to observe the Xiongnu. According to Xiongnu law, a Han envoy could not enter the felt tent unless he removed his credential staff and had his face tattooed with ink. Wang Wu, a man of Beidi who was familiar with Hu customs, removed his staff, tattooed his face, and was able to enter the felt tent. The chanyu loved him, feigned agreement with sweet words, and said he would send his crown prince into Han as hostage in order to seek heqin.

Han sent Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. At this time Han had in the east seized Huimo and Chaoxian and made them commanderies; in the west it had established Jiuquan Commandery to cut off the road of communication between the Hu and the Qiang. Han had also opened communication westward with the Yuezhi and Daxia, and had married a princess to the king of Wusun in order to divide the Xiongnu from their supporting states in the west. In the north it had further widened the fields up to Xuanlei as a barrier, and the Xiongnu never dared say anything about it.

In this year Xin, the Marquis of Xi, died. Those who managed affairs in Han considered the Xiongnu already weakened and fit to be made subjects. Yang Xin was rigid, straight, and stubborn by nature, and had never been a noble minister; the chanyu was not close to him. The chanyu wished to summon him inside, but Yang Xin refused to put away his credential staff. The chanyu therefore sat outside the felt tent to meet Yang Xin. After Yang Xin had seen the chanyu, he persuaded him, saying, "If you wish heqin, send the chanyu's crown prince as hostage to Han."

The chanyu said, "That is not the old agreement. In the old agreement, Han always sent an imperial clanswoman, supplied silk, floss, and foodstuffs by fixed grades, and thereby made heqin, while the Xiongnu also did not disturb the frontier. Now you want to reverse antiquity and order my crown prince to be a hostage. There is no point in this."

By Xiongnu custom, when they saw that a Han envoy was not a favored courtier, if he was a Confucian elder they assumed he wanted to persuade them and broke his argument; if he was a young man they assumed he wanted to assassinate someone and broke his spirit. Whenever Han envoys entered the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu would reply in compensation. If Han detained Xiongnu envoys, the Xiongnu also detained Han envoys; only when they had an equal match would they stop.

After Yang Xin returned, Han sent Wang Wu. The chanyu again mixed in sweet words, wanting to obtain more Han goods. He deceived Wang Wu, saying, "I wish to enter Han, see the Son of Heaven, and make an agreement face to face to be elder and younger brothers." Wang Wu returned and reported this to Han. Han built a residence for the chanyu at Chang'an.

The Xiongnu said, "Unless we obtain a noble Han envoy, we will not speak sincerely." The Xiongnu sent one of their nobles to Han. He became ill. Han gave him medicine and wanted to cure him, but unfortunately he died. Then Han sent Lu Chongguo, wearing the seal and ribbon of a two-thousand-stone official, to go as envoy and escort the funeral. Han buried him generously, at a cost worth several thousand jin of gold, saying, "This is a Han noble." The chanyu thought that Han had killed his noble envoy, and therefore detained Lu Chongguo and did not send him back.

As for all the things the chanyu had said, he had merely deceived Wang Wu with empty words; he had no intention whatever of entering Han or sending his crown prince to come as hostage. Then the Xiongnu repeatedly sent surprise troops to violate the frontier. Han therefore appointed Guo Chang as General Who Uproots the Hu, and with the Marquis of Zhuoye garrisoned east of Shuofang to prepare against the Hu. Lu Chongguo remained detained among the Xiongnu for three years, and the chanyu died.

Wuwei Chanyu died after ten years on the throne. His son Wushilu was established as chanyu. Because he was young, he was called the Child Chanyu. This was the sixth year of Yuanfeng. From this time afterward, the chanyu moved farther northwest. The troops of the left side faced Yunzhong; those of the right side faced Jiuquan and Dunhuang commanderies.

When the Child Chanyu was established, Han sent two envoys, one to mourn with the chanyu and one to mourn with the Right Worthy King, wishing to divide his state. When the envoys entered the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu led them all to the chanyu. The chanyu was angry and detained all the Han envoys. Before and after, more than ten groups of Han envoys were detained among the Xiongnu; when Xiongnu envoys came, Han also detained them in turn to match them.

In this year Han sent the General of Ershi, Guangli, west to campaign against Dawan, and ordered the Yinyu General Ao to build Surrender City. That winter, heavy snow fell among the Xiongnu, and many animals died of hunger and cold. The Child Chanyu was young and fond of killing and attacking; many people in the state were uneasy. The Left Great Commandant wanted to kill the chanyu, and secretly sent men to inform Han, saying, "I wish to kill the chanyu and surrender to Han. Han is far away; if troops come to welcome me, I will act at once." At first, when Han heard these words, it built Surrender City for this reason, yet still considered it far away.

In the spring of the next year, Han sent the Marquis of Zhuoye, Ponu, with more than twenty thousand cavalry out northwest from Shuofang for more than two thousand li, planning to reach Mount Junji and return. After the Marquis of Zhuoye had reached the agreed time and returned, the Left Great Commandant was about to act, but the matter was discovered. The chanyu executed him and mobilized the troops of the left side to strike Zhuoye.

The Marquis of Zhuoye had taken several thousand heads and captives while on the march. On his return, when he was still four hundred li short of Surrender City, eighty thousand Xiongnu cavalry surrounded him. The Marquis of Zhuoye went out by night by himself to look for water. Xiongnu scouts captured him secretly and took the Marquis of Zhuoye alive, then urgently attacked his army.

In the army, Guo Zong served as protector and King Wei as leader. They plotted together, saying, "The commandants and officers fear that, because the general is lost, they will be executed. None will encourage another to return." The army was then lost among the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu Child Chanyu was greatly pleased and sent surprise troops to attack Surrender City. They could not take it, and so raided into the frontier and left. The next year, the chanyu wanted to attack Surrender City himself, but before he arrived he fell ill and died.

The Child Chanyu died after three years on the throne. His son was young, and the Xiongnu therefore established his youngest uncle, Hulihu, the Right Worthy King and younger brother of Wuwei Chanyu, as chanyu. This was the third year of Taichu.

When Hulihu Chanyu was established, Han sent Xu Ziwei of the Guanglu office out from Wuyuan Pass for several hundred li, and in the farthest places more than a thousand li, to build walled barriers and a line of watch-stations as far as Luqu. It also sent the guerrilla general Han Yue and Wei Kang, Marquis of Changping, to garrison beside them, and sent Lu Bode, commandant of strong crossbows, to build on Juyan Marsh.

That autumn the Xiongnu entered Dingxiang and Yunzhong in great force, killed and carried off several thousand people, defeated several two-thousand-stone officials, and left. On the march they destroyed the walled towns, watch-stations, and barriers that the Guanglu officer had built. They also sent the Right Worthy King into Jiuquan and Zhangye, where he carried off several thousand people. When Ren Wen happened to strike and rescue them, the Xiongnu lost again all that they had obtained and left. This year the General of Ershi broke Dawan, beheaded its king, and returned. The Xiongnu wanted to intercept him, but could not reach him. That winter they wanted to attack Surrender City, but it happened that the chanyu fell ill and died.

Hulihu Chanyu died after one year on the throne. The Xiongnu then established his younger brother, the Left Great Commandant Qiedihou, as chanyu.

After Han had punished Dawan, its awe shook the foreign states. The Son of Heaven intended to press the Hu into distress. He therefore issued an edict, saying: "The Gao Emperor left me the grief of Pingcheng; in the time of Empress Gao, the chanyu's letter was utterly perverse and rebellious. In former times Duke Xiang of Qi avenged a feud of nine generations, and the Spring and Autumn made it great." This year was the fourth year of Taichu.

After Qiedihou Chanyu had been established, he returned all Han envoys who had not surrendered. Lu Chongguo and the others were able to return. When the chanyu had first been established, he feared Han would attack him, and said of himself, "I am like a child. How could I dare look toward the Han Son of Heaven? The Han Son of Heaven is of the generation of my father-in-law." Han sent Su Wu, general of the palace gentlemen, with generous gifts and bribes for the chanyu. The chanyu became still more arrogant, and his ritual was very haughty, not what Han had hoped for. The next year the Marquis of Zhuoye, Ponu, was able to escape and return to Han.

The next year Han sent the General of Ershi, Guangli, with thirty thousand cavalry out from Jiuquan to strike the Right Worthy King at Tianshan. He obtained more than ten thousand Hu heads and captives and returned. The Xiongnu surrounded the General of Ershi in great force, and he barely escaped. Six or seven in ten of the Han troops died.

Han again sent the Yinyu General Ao out from Xihe to meet the commandant of strong crossbows at Zhuotu Mountain, but they obtained nothing. It also sent Li Ling, commandant of cavalry, with five thousand infantry and cavalry. He went more than a thousand li north of Juyan and encountered the chanyu. They joined battle, and Ling killed and wounded more than ten thousand men. When his troops and food were exhausted, he wanted to break away and return. The Xiongnu surrounded Ling. Ling surrendered to the Xiongnu, and his army was then lost. Four hundred men were able to return. The chanyu honored Ling and gave him his daughter as wife.

Two years later, Han again sent the General of Ershi with sixty thousand cavalry and a hundred thousand infantry out from Shuofang. Lu Bode, commandant of strong crossbows, led more than ten thousand men and joined Ershi. The guerrilla general Yue led thirty thousand infantry and cavalry out from Wuyuan. The Yinyu General Ao led ten thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry out from Yanmen.

When the Xiongnu heard of this, they moved all their families and baggage far away to the north of the Yuwu River, while the chanyu waited south of the river with a hundred thousand cavalry. He fought the General of Ershi. Ershi then broke off and drew back, fighting the chanyu continuously for more than ten days. Ershi heard that his family had been exterminated because of the witchcraft affair, and therefore surrendered to the Xiongnu with all his forces. Of those who were able to come back, there were only one or two in a thousand. The guerrilla general Yue gained nothing. The Yinyu General Ao fought the Left Worthy King, did not prevail, and withdrew.

This year, among the Han armies that went out to strike the Xiongnu, no merit could be reported as great or small; no merit could be presented to the throne. An edict was issued to arrest Sui Dan, director of imperial physicians, saying that because he had reported the extermination of the General of Ershi's household, he had enabled Guangli to surrender to the Xiongnu.

The Grand Historian says: When Confucius composed the Spring and Autumn, between the reigns of Yin and Huan it is clear and manifest; by the time of Ding and Ai it is subtle. This was because the writing cut close to his own age and did not offer open praise; it was language of avoidance and taboo.

Those in the common run who speak about the Xiongnu suffer from chasing the expedient power of a single moment. They labor to ingratiate themselves and have their proposals accepted, in order to suit one-sided aims; they do not compare the other side and our own. Commanders and leaders rely on the vastness of the Middle States, their spirits excited, and rulers make decisions on that basis. For this reason their achievements do not go deep.

Although Yao was worthy, the works he raised could not be completed until he obtained Yu, and then the Nine Provinces were at peace. If one wishes to raise up the tradition of the sages, is it not only a matter of choosing the generals and ministers? Is it not only a matter of choosing the generals and ministers?

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was prepared for the Scythian shelf by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. The English is an independent rendering from the source-language Chinese, with existing English displays and translations used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Compiled and formatted for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: 史記 卷一百一十 匈奴列傳

Classical Chinese source text from Sima Qian's Shiji, chapter 110, the Xiongnu Liezhuan. Presented here for reference, study, and verification alongside the English translation above.

Origins, Maodun, and the First Han Treaty

匈奴，其先祖夏后氏之苗裔也，曰淳維。唐虞以上有山戎、獫狁、葷粥，居于北蠻，隨畜牧而轉移。其畜之所多則馬、牛、羊，其奇畜則橐駞、驢、驘、駃騠、騊駼、騨騱。逐水草遷徙，毋城郭常處耕田之業，然亦各有分地。毋文書，以言語為約束。兒能騎羊，引弓射鳥鼠；少長則射狐兔：用為食。士力能毋弓，盡為甲騎。其俗，寬則隨畜，因射獵禽獸為生業，急則人習戰攻以侵伐，其天性也。其長兵則弓矢，短兵則刀鋋。利則進，不利則退，不羞遁走。茍利所在，不知禮義。自君王以下，咸食畜肉，衣其皮革，被旃裘。壯者食肥美，老者食其餘。貴壯健，賤老弱。父死，妻其後母；兄弟死，皆取其妻妻之。其俗有名不諱，而無姓字。

夏道衰，而公劉失其稷官，變于西戎，邑于豳。其後三百有餘歲，戎狄攻大王亶父，亶父亡走岐下，而豳人悉從亶父而邑焉，作周。其後百有餘歲，周西伯昌伐畎夷氏。後十有餘年，武王伐紂而營雒邑，復居于酆鄗，放逐戎夷涇、洛之北，以時入貢，命曰「荒服」。其後二百有餘年，周道衰，而穆王伐犬戎，得四白狼四白鹿以歸。自是之後，荒服不至。於是周遂作甫刑之辟。穆王之後二百有餘年，周幽王用寵姬褒姒之故，與申侯有卻。申侯怒而與犬戎共攻殺周幽王于驪山之下，遂取周之焦穫，而居于涇渭之閒，侵暴中國。秦襄公救周，於是周平王去酆鄗而東徙雒邑。當是之時，秦襄公伐戎至岐，始列為諸侯。是後六十有五年，而山戎越燕而伐齊，齊釐公與戰于齊郊。其後四十四年，而山戎伐燕。燕告急于齊，齊桓公北伐山戎，山戎走。其後二十有餘年，而戎狄至洛邑，伐周襄王，襄王奔于鄭之氾邑。初，周襄王欲伐鄭，故娶戎狄女為后，與戎狄兵共伐鄭。已而黜狄后，狄后怨，而襄王後母曰惠后，有子子帶，欲立之，於是惠后與狄后、子帶為內應，開戎狄，戎狄以故得入，破逐周襄王，而立子帶為天子。於是戎狄或居于陸渾，東至於衛，侵盜暴虐中國。中國疾之，故詩人歌之曰「戎狄是應」，「薄伐獫狁，至於大原」，「出輿彭彭，城彼朔方」。周襄王既居外四年，乃使使告急于晉。晉文公初立，欲修霸業，乃興師伐逐戎翟，誅子帶，迎內周襄王，居于雒邑。

當是之時，秦晉為彊國。晉文公攘戎翟，居于河西圁、洛之閒，號曰赤翟、白翟。秦穆公得由余，西戎八國服於秦，故自隴以西有綿諸、緄戎、翟、獂之戎，岐、梁山、涇、漆之北有義渠、大荔、烏氏、朐衍之戎。而晉北有林胡、樓煩之戎，燕北有東胡、山戎。各分散居谿谷，自有君長，往往而聚者百有餘戎，然莫能相一。

自是之後百有餘年，晉悼公使魏絳和戎翟，戎翟朝晉。後百有餘年，趙襄子踰句注而破并代以臨胡貉。其後既與韓魏共滅智伯，分晉地而有之，則趙有代、句注之北，魏有河西、上郡，以與戎界邊。其後義渠之戎筑城郭以自守，而秦稍蠶食，至於惠王，遂拔義渠二十五城。惠王擊魏，魏盡入西河及上郡于秦。秦昭王時，義渠戎王與宣太后亂，有二子。宣太后詐而殺義渠戎王於甘泉，遂起兵伐殘義渠。於是秦有隴西、北地、上郡，筑長城以拒胡。而趙武靈王亦變俗胡服，習騎射，北破林胡、樓煩。筑長城，自代并陰山下，至高闕為塞。而置雲中、鴈門、代郡。其後燕有賢將秦開，為質於胡，胡甚信之。歸而襲破走東胡，東胡卻千餘里。與荊軻刺秦王秦舞陽者，開之孫也。燕亦筑長城，自造陽至襄平。置上谷、漁陽、右北平、遼西、遼東郡以拒胡。當是之時，冠帶戰國七，而三國邊於匈奴。其後趙將李牧時，匈奴不敢入趙邊。後秦滅六國，而始皇帝使蒙恬將十萬之眾北擊胡，悉收河南地。因河為塞，筑四十四縣城臨河，徙適戍以充之。而通直道，自九原至雲陽，因邊山險塹谿谷可繕者治之，起臨洮至遼東萬餘里。又度河據陽山北假中。

當是之時，東胡彊而月氏盛。匈奴單于曰頭曼，頭曼不勝秦，北徙。十餘年而蒙恬死，諸侯畔秦，中國擾亂，諸秦所徙適戍邊者皆復去，於是匈奴得寬，復稍度河南與中國界於故塞。

單于有太子名冒頓。後有所愛閼氏，生少子，而單于欲廢冒頓而立少子，乃使冒頓質於月氏。冒頓既質於月氏，而頭曼急擊月氏。月氏欲殺冒頓，冒頓盜其善馬，騎之亡歸。頭曼以為壯，令將萬騎。冒頓乃作為鳴鏑，習勒其騎射，令曰：「鳴鏑所射而不悉射者，斬之。」行獵鳥獸，有不射鳴鏑所射者，輒斬之。已而冒頓以鳴鏑自射其善馬，左右或不敢射者，冒頓立斬不射善馬者。居頃之，復以鳴鏑自射其愛妻，左右或頗恐，不敢射，冒頓又復斬之。居頃之，冒頓出獵，以鳴鏑射單于善馬，左右皆射之。於是冒頓知其左右皆可用。從其父單于頭曼獵，以鳴鏑射頭曼，其左右亦皆隨鳴鏑而射殺單于頭曼，遂盡誅其後母與弟及大臣不聽從者。冒頓自立為單于。

冒頓既立，是時東胡彊盛，聞冒頓殺父自立，乃使使謂冒頓，欲得頭曼時有千里馬。冒頓問群臣，群臣皆曰：「千里馬，匈奴寶馬也，勿與。」冒頓曰：「柰何與人鄰國而愛一馬乎？」遂與之千里馬。居頃之，東胡以為冒頓畏之，乃使使謂冒頓，欲得單于一閼氏。冒頓復問左右，左右皆怒曰：「東胡無道，乃求閼氏！請擊之。」冒頓曰：「柰何與人鄰國愛一女子乎？」遂取所愛閼氏予東胡。東胡王愈益驕，西侵。與匈奴閒，中有棄地，莫居，千餘里，各居其邊為甌脫。東胡使使謂冒頓曰：「匈奴所與我界甌脫外棄地，匈奴非能至也，吾欲有之。」冒頓問群臣，群臣或曰：「此棄地，予之亦可，勿予亦可。」於是冒頓大怒曰：「地者，國之本也，柰何予之！」諸言予之者，皆斬之。冒頓上馬，令國中有後者斬，遂東襲擊東胡。東胡初輕冒頓，不為備。及冒頓以兵至，擊，大破滅東胡王，而虜其民人及畜產。既歸，西擊走月氏，南并樓煩、白羊河南王。［侵燕代］悉復收秦所使蒙恬所奪匈奴地者，與漢關故河南塞，至朝那、膚施，遂侵燕、代。是時漢兵與項羽相距，中國罷於兵革，以故冒頓得自彊，控弦之士三十餘萬。

自淳維以至頭曼千有餘歲，時大時小，別散分離，尚矣，其世傳不可得而次云。然至冒頓而匈奴最彊大，盡服從北夷，而南與中國為敵國，其世傳國官號乃可得而記云。

置左右賢王，左右谷蠡王，左右大將，左右大都尉，左右大當戶，左右骨都侯。匈奴謂賢曰「屠耆」，故常以太子為左屠耆王。自如左右賢王以下至當戶，大者萬騎，小者數千，凡二十四長，立號曰「萬騎」。諸大臣皆世官。呼衍氏，蘭氏，其後有須卜氏，此三姓其貴種也。諸左方王將居東方，直上谷以往者，東接穢貉、朝鮮；右方王將居西方，直上郡以西，接月氏、氐、羌；而單于之庭直代、雲中：各有分地，逐水草移徙。而左右賢王、左右谷蠡王最為大（國），左右骨都侯輔政。諸二十四長亦各自置千長、百長、什長、裨小王、相、封都尉、當戶、且渠之屬。

歲正月，諸長小會單于庭，祠。五月，大會蘢城，祭其先、天地、鬼神。秋，馬肥，大會蹛林，課校人畜計。其法，拔刃尺者死，坐盜者沒入其家；有罪小者軋，大者死。獄久者不過十日，一國之囚不過數人。而單于朝出營，拜日之始生，夕拜月。其坐，長左而北鄉。日上戊己。其送死，有棺槨金銀衣裘，而無封樹喪服；近幸臣妾從死者，多至數千百人。舉事而候星月，月盛壯則攻戰，月虧則退兵。其攻戰，斬首虜賜一卮酒，而所得鹵獲因以予之，得人以為奴婢。故其戰，人人自為趣利，善為誘兵以冒敵。故其見敵則逐利，如鳥之集；其困敗，則瓦解雲散矣。戰而扶輿死者，盡得死者家財。

後北服渾庾、屈射、丁零、鬲昆、薪犁之國。於是匈奴貴人大臣皆服，以冒頓單于為賢。

是時漢初定中國，徙韓王信於代，都馬邑。匈奴大攻圍馬邑，韓王信降匈奴。匈奴得信，因引兵南踰句注，攻太原，至晉陽下。高帝自將兵往擊之。會冬大寒雨雪，卒之墮指者十二三，於是冒頓詳敗走，誘漢兵。漢兵逐擊冒頓，冒頓匿其精兵，見其羸弱，於是漢悉兵，多步兵，三十二萬，北逐之。高帝先至平城，步兵未盡到，冒頓縱精兵四十萬騎圍高帝於白登，七日，漢兵中外不得相救餉。匈奴騎，其西方盡白馬，東方盡青駹馬，北方盡烏驪馬，南方盡騂馬。高帝乃使使閒厚遺閼氏，閼氏乃謂冒頓曰：「兩主不相困。今得漢地，而單于終非能居之也。且漢王亦有神，單于察之。」冒頓與韓王信之將王黃、趙利期，而黃、利兵又不來，疑其與漢有謀，亦取閼氏之言，乃解圍之一角。於是高帝令士皆持滿傅矢外鄉，從解角直出，竟與大軍合，而冒頓遂引兵而去。漢亦引兵而罷，使劉敬結和親之約。

是後韓王信為匈奴將，及趙利、王黃等數倍約，侵盜代、雲中。居無幾何，陳豨反，又與韓信合謀擊代。漢使樊噲往擊之，復拔代、鴈門、雲中郡縣，不出塞。是時匈奴以漢將眾往降，故冒頓常往來侵盜代地。於是漢患之，高帝乃使劉敬奉宗室女公主為單于閼氏，歲奉匈奴絮繒酒米食物各有數，約為昆弟以和親，冒頓乃少止。後燕王盧綰反，率其黨數千人降匈奴，往來苦上谷以東。

高祖崩，孝惠、呂太后時，漢初定，故匈奴以驕。冒頓乃為書遺高后，妄言。高后欲擊之，諸將曰：「以高帝賢武，然尚困於平城。」於是高后乃止，復與匈奴和親。

至孝文帝初立，復修和親之事。其三年五月，匈奴右賢王入居河南地，侵盜上郡葆塞蠻夷，殺略人民。於是孝文帝詔丞相灌嬰發車騎八萬五千，詣高奴，擊右賢王。右賢王走出塞。文帝幸太原。是時濟北王反，文帝歸，罷丞相擊胡之兵。

Heqin, Zhonghang Yue, and Mayi

其明年，單于遺漢書曰：「天所立匈奴大單于敬問皇帝無恙。前時皇帝言和親事，稱書意，合歡。漢邊吏侵侮右賢王，右賢王不請，聽後義盧侯難氏等計，與漢吏相距，絕二主之約，離兄弟之親。皇帝讓書再至，發使以書報，不來，漢使不至，漢以其故不和，鄰國不附。今以小吏之敗約故，罰右賢王，使之西求月氏擊之。以天之福，吏卒良，馬彊力，以夷滅月氏，盡斬殺降下之。定樓蘭、烏孫、呼揭及其旁二十六國，皆以為匈奴。諸引弓之民，并為一家。北州已定，願寢兵休士卒養馬，除前事，復故約，以安邊民，以應始古，使少者得成其長，老者安其處，世世平樂。未得皇帝之志也，故使郎中系雩淺奉書請，獻橐他一匹，騎馬二匹，駕二駟。皇帝即不欲匈奴近塞，則且詔吏民遠舍。使者至，即遣之。」以六月中來至薪望之地。書至，漢議擊與和親孰便。公卿皆曰：「單于新破月氏，乘勝，不可擊。且得匈奴地，澤鹵，非可居也。和親甚便。」漢許之。

孝文皇帝前六年，漢遺匈奴書曰：「皇帝敬問匈奴大單于無恙。使郎中系雩淺遺朕書曰：『右賢王不請，聽後義盧侯難氏等計，絕二主之約，離兄弟之親，漢以故不和，鄰國不附。今以小吏敗約，故罰右賢王使西擊月氏，盡定之。願寢兵休士卒養馬，除前事，復故約，以安邊民，使少者得成其長，老者安其處，世世平樂。』朕甚嘉之，此古聖主之意也。漢與匈奴約為兄弟，所以遺單于甚厚。倍約離兄弟之親者，常在匈奴。然右賢王事已在赦前，單于勿深誅。單于若稱書意，明告諸吏，使無負約，有信，敬如單于書。使者言單于自將伐國有功，甚苦兵事。服繡袷綺衣、繡袷長襦、錦袷袍各一，比余一，黃金飾具帶一，黃金胥紕一，繡十匹，錦三十匹，赤綈、綠繒各四十匹，使中大夫意、謁者令肩遺單于。」

後頃之，冒頓死，子稽粥立，號曰老上單于。

老上稽粥單于初立，孝文皇帝復遣宗室女公主為單于閼氏，使宦者燕人中行說傅公主。說不欲行，漢彊使之。說曰：「必我行也，為漢患者。」中行說既至，因降單于，單于甚親幸之。

初，匈奴好漢繒絮食物，中行說曰：「匈奴人眾不能當漢之一郡，然所以彊者，以衣食異，無仰於漢也。今單于變俗好漢物，漢物不過什二，則匈奴盡歸於漢矣。其得漢繒絮，以馳草棘中，衣袴皆裂敝，以示不如旃裘之完善也。得漢食物皆去之，以示不如湩酪之便美也。」於是說教單于左右疏記，以計課其人眾畜物。

漢遺單于書，牘以尺一寸，辭曰「皇帝敬問匈奴大單于無恙」，所遺物及言語云云。中行說令單于遺漢書以尺二寸牘，及印封皆令廣大長，倨傲其辭曰「天地所生日月所置匈奴大單于敬問漢皇帝無恙」，所以遺物言語亦云云。

漢使或言曰：「匈奴俗賤老。」中行說窮漢使曰：「而漢俗屯戍從軍當發者，其老親豈有不自脫溫厚肥美以齎送飲食行戍乎？」漢使曰：「然。」中行說曰：「匈奴明以戰攻為事，其老弱不能鬬，故以其肥美飲食壯健者，蓋以自為守衛，如此父子各得久相保，何以言匈奴輕老也？」漢使曰：「匈奴父子乃同穹廬而臥。父死，妻其後母；兄弟死，盡取其妻妻之。無冠帶之飾，闕庭之禮。」中行說曰：「匈奴之俗，人食畜肉，飲其汁，衣其皮；畜食草飲水，隨時轉移。故其急則人習騎射，寬則人樂無事，其約束輕，易行也。君臣簡易，一國之政猶一身也。父子兄弟死，取其妻妻之，惡種姓之失也。故匈奴雖亂，必立宗種。今中國雖詳不取其父兄之妻，親屬益疏則相殺，至乃易姓，皆從此類。且禮義之敝，上下交怨望，而室屋之極，生力必屈。夫力耕桑以求衣食，筑城郭以自備，故其民急則不習戰功，緩則罷於作業。嗟土室之人，顧無多辭，令喋喋而佔佔，冠固何當？」

自是之後，漢使欲辯論者，中行說輒曰：「漢使無多言，顧漢所輸匈奴繒絮米糱，令其量中，必善美而己矣，何以為言乎？且所給備善則已；不備，苦惡，則候秋孰，以騎馳蹂而稼穡耳。」日夜教單于候利害處。

漢孝文皇帝十四年，匈奴單于十四萬騎入朝那、蕭關，殺北地都尉卬，虜人民畜產甚多，遂至彭陽。使奇兵入燒回中宮，候騎至雍甘泉。於是文帝以中尉周舍、郎中令張武為將軍，發車千乘，騎十萬，軍長安旁以備胡寇。而拜昌侯盧卿為上郡將軍，甯侯魏遬為北地將軍，隆慮侯周灶為隴西將軍，東陽侯張相如為大將軍，成侯董赤為前將軍，大發車騎往擊胡。單于留塞內月餘乃去，漢逐出塞即還，不能有所殺。匈奴日已驕，歲入邊，殺略人民畜產甚多，雲中、遼東最甚，至代郡萬餘人。漢患之，乃使使遺匈奴書。單于亦使當戶報謝，復言和親事。

孝文帝後二年，使使遺匈奴書曰：「皇帝敬問匈奴大單于無恙。使當戶且居雕渠難、郎中韓遼遺朕馬二匹，已至，敬受。先帝制：長城以北，引弓之國，受命單于；長城以內，冠帶之室，朕亦制之。使萬民耕織射獵衣食，父子無離，臣主相安，俱無暴逆。今聞渫惡民貪降其進取之利，倍義絕約，忘萬民之命，離兩主之驩，然其事已在前矣。書曰：『二國已和親，兩主驩說，寢兵休卒養馬，世世昌樂，闟然更始。』朕甚嘉之。聖人者日新，改作更始，使老者得息，幼者得長，各保其首領而終其天年。朕與單于俱由此道，順天恤民，世世相傳，施之無窮，天下莫不咸便。漢與匈奴鄰國之敵，匈奴處北地，寒，殺氣早降，故詔吏遺單于秫糱金帛絲絮佗物歲有數。今天下大安，萬民熙熙，朕與單于為之父母。朕追念前事，薄物細故，謀臣計失，皆不足以離兄弟之驩。朕聞天不頗覆，地不偏載。朕與單于皆捐往細故，俱蹈大道，墮壞前惡，以圖長久，使兩國之民若一家子。元元萬民，下及魚鱉，上及飛鳥，跂行喙息蠕動之類，莫不就安利而辟危殆。故來者不止，天之道也。俱去前事：朕釋逃虜民，單于無言章尼等。朕聞古之帝王，約分明而無食言。單于留志，天下大安，和親之後，漢過不先。單于其察之。」

單于既約和親，於是制詔御史曰：「匈奴大單于遺朕書，言和親已定，亡人不足以益眾廣地，匈奴無入塞，漢無出塞，犯（令）［今］約者殺之，可以久親，后無咎，俱便。朕已許之。其布告天下，使明知之。」

後四歲，老上稽粥單于死，子軍臣立為單于。既立，孝文皇帝復與匈奴和親。而中行說復事之。

軍臣單于立四歲，匈奴復絕和親，大入上郡、雲中各三萬騎，所殺略甚眾而去。於是漢使三將軍軍屯北地，代屯句注，趙屯飛狐口，緣邊亦各堅守以備胡寇。又置三將軍，軍長安西細柳、渭北棘門、霸上以備胡。胡騎入代句注邊，烽火通於甘泉、長安。數月，漢兵至邊，匈奴亦去遠塞，漢兵亦罷。後歲餘，孝文帝崩，孝景帝立，而趙王遂乃陰使人於匈奴。吳楚反，欲與趙合謀入邊。漢圍破趙，匈奴亦止。自是之後，孝景帝復與匈奴和親，通關市，給遺匈奴，遣公主，如故約。終孝景時，時小入盜邊，無大寇。

今帝即位，明和親約束，厚遇，通關市，饒給之。匈奴自單于以下皆親漢，往來長城下。

漢使馬邑下人聶翁壹奸蘭出物與匈奴交，詳為賣馬邑城以誘單于。單于信之，而貪馬邑財物，乃以十萬騎入武州塞。漢伏兵三十餘萬馬邑旁，御史大夫韓安國為護軍，護四將軍以伏單于。單于既入漢塞，未至馬邑百餘里，見畜布野而無人牧者，怪之，乃攻亭。是時鴈門尉史行徼，見寇，葆此亭，知漢兵謀，單于得，欲殺之，尉史乃告單于漢兵所居。單于大驚曰：「吾固疑之。」乃引兵還。出曰：「吾得尉史，天也，天使若言。」以尉史為「天王」。漢兵約單于入馬邑而縱，單于不至，以故漢兵無所得。漢將軍王恢部出代擊胡輜重，聞單于還，兵多，不敢出。漢以恢本造兵謀而不進，斬恢。自是之後，匈奴絕和親，攻當路塞，往往入盜於漢邊，不可勝數。然匈奴貪，尚樂關市，嗜漢財物，漢亦尚關市不絕以中之。

Wudi's Northern War

自馬邑軍後五年之秋，漢使四將軍各萬騎擊胡關市下。將軍衛青出上谷，至蘢城，得胡首虜七百人。公孫賀出雲中，無所得。公孫敖出代郡，為胡所敗七千餘人。李廣出鴈門，為胡所敗，而匈奴生得廣，廣后得亡歸。漢囚敖、廣，敖、廣贖為庶人。其冬，匈奴數入盜邊，漁陽尤甚。漢使將軍韓安國屯漁陽備胡。其明年秋，匈奴二萬騎入漢，殺遼西太守，略二千餘人。胡又入敗漁陽太守軍千餘人，圍漢將軍安國，安國時千餘騎亦且盡，會燕救至，匈奴乃去。匈奴又入鴈門，殺略千餘人。於是漢使將軍衛青將三萬騎出鴈門，李息出代郡，擊胡。得首虜數千人。其明年，衛青復出雲中以西至隴西，擊胡之樓煩、白羊王於河南，得胡首虜數千，牛羊百餘萬。於是漢遂取河南地，筑朔方，復繕故秦時蒙恬所為塞，因河為固。漢亦棄上谷之什辟縣造陽地以予胡。是歲，漢之元朔二年也。

其后冬，匈奴軍臣單于死。軍臣單于弟左谷蠡王伊稚斜自立為單于，攻破軍臣單于太子於單。於單亡降漢，漢封於單為涉安侯，數月而死。

伊稚斜單于既立，其夏，匈奴數萬騎入殺代郡太守恭友，略千餘人。其秋，匈奴又入鴈門，殺略千餘人。其明年，匈奴又復復入代郡、定襄、上郡，各三萬騎，殺略數千人。匈奴右賢王怨漢奪之河南地而筑朔方，數為寇，盜邊，及入河南，侵擾朔方，殺略吏民其眾。

其明年春，漢以衛青為大將軍，將六將軍，十餘萬人，出朔方、高闕擊胡。右賢王以為漢兵不能至，飲酒醉，漢兵出塞六七百里，夜圍右賢王。右賢王大驚，脫身逃走，諸精騎往往隨后去。漢得右賢王眾男女萬五千人，裨小王十餘人。其秋，匈奴萬騎入殺代郡都尉朱英，略千餘人。

其明年春，漢復遣大將軍衛青將六將軍，兵十餘萬騎，乃再出定襄數百里擊匈奴，得首虜前后凡萬九千餘級，而漢亦亡兩將軍，軍三千餘騎。右將軍建得以身脫，而前將軍翕侯趙信兵不利，降匈奴。趙信者，故胡小王，降漢，漢封為翕侯，以前將軍與右將軍并軍分行，獨遇單于兵，故盡沒。單于既得翕侯，以為自次王，用其姊妻之，與謀漢。信教單于益北絕幕，以誘罷漢兵，徼極而取之，無近塞。單于從其計。其明年，胡騎萬人入上谷，殺數百人。

其明年春，漢使驃騎將軍去病將萬騎出隴西，過焉支山千餘里，擊匈奴，得胡首虜（騎）萬八千餘級，破得休屠王祭天金人。其夏，驃騎將軍復與合騎侯數萬騎出隴西、北地二千里，擊匈奴。過居延，攻祁連山，得胡首虜三萬餘人，裨小王以下七十餘人。是時匈奴亦來入代郡、鴈門，殺略數百人。漢使博望侯及李將軍廣出右北平，擊匈奴左賢王。左賢王圍李將軍，卒可四千人，且盡，殺虜亦過當。會博望侯軍救至，李將軍得脫。漢失亡數千人，合騎侯後驃騎將軍期，及與博望侯皆當死，贖為庶人。

其秋，單于怒渾邪王、休屠王居西方為漢所殺虜數萬人，欲召誅之。渾邪王與休屠王恐，謀降漢，漢使驃騎將軍往迎之。渾邪王殺休屠王，并將其眾降漢。凡四萬餘人，號十萬。於是漢已得渾邪王，則隴西、北地、河西益少胡寇，徙關東貧民處所奪匈奴河南、新秦中以實之，而減北地以西戍卒半。其明年，匈奴入右北平、定襄各數萬騎，殺略千餘人而去。

其明年春，漢謀曰「翕侯信為單于計，居幕北，以為漢兵不能至」。乃粟馬發十萬騎，（負）私［負］從馬凡十四萬匹，糧重不與焉。令大將軍青、驃騎將軍去病中分軍，大將軍出定襄，驃騎將軍出代，咸約絕幕擊匈奴。單于聞之，遠其輜重，以精兵待於幕北。與漢大將軍接戰一日，會暮，大風起，漢兵縱左右翼圍單于。單于自度戰不能如漢兵，單于遂獨身與壯騎數百潰漢圍西北遁走。漢兵夜追不得。行斬捕匈奴首虜萬九千級，北至闐顏山趙信城而還。

單于之遁走，其兵往往與漢兵相亂而隨單于。單于久不與其大眾相得，其右谷蠡王以為單于死，乃自立為單于。真單于復得其眾，而右谷蠡王乃去其單于號，復為右谷蠡王。

漢驃騎將軍之出代二千餘里，與左賢王接戰，漢兵得胡首虜凡七萬餘級，左賢王將皆遁走。驃騎封於狼居胥山，禪姑衍，臨翰海而還。

是後匈奴遠遁，而幕南無王庭。漢度河自朔方以西至令居，往往通渠置田，官吏卒五六萬人，稍蠶食，地接匈奴以北。

初，漢兩將軍大出圍單于，所殺虜八九萬，而漢士卒物故亦數萬，漢馬死者十餘萬。匈奴雖病，遠去，而漢亦馬少，無以復往。匈奴用趙信之計，遣使於漢，好辭請和親。天子下其議，或言和親，或言遂臣之。丞相長史任敞曰：「匈奴新破，困，宜可使為外臣，朝請於邊。」漢使任敞於單于。單于聞敞計，大怒，留之不遣。先是漢亦有所降匈奴使者，單于亦輒留漢使相當。漢方復收士馬，會驃騎將軍去病死，於是漢久不北擊胡。

Envoys, Surrender City, and the Grand Historian's Judgment

數歲，伊稚斜單于立十三年死，子烏維立為單于。是歲，漢元鼎三年也。烏維單于立，而漢天子始出巡郡縣。其後漢方南誅兩越，不擊匈奴，匈奴亦不侵入邊。

烏維單于立三年，漢已滅南越，遣故太仆賀將萬五千騎出九原二千餘里，至浮苴井而還，不見匈奴一人。漢又遣故從驃侯趙破奴萬餘騎出令居數千里，至匈河水而還，亦不見匈奴一人。

是時天子巡邊，至朔方，勒兵十八萬騎以見武節，而使郭吉風告單于。郭吉既至匈奴，匈奴主客問所使，郭吉禮卑言好，曰：「吾見單于而口言。」單于見吉，吉曰：「南越王頭已懸於漢北闕。今單于（能）即［能］前與漢戰，天子自將兵待邊；單于即不能，即南面而臣於漢。何徒遠走，亡匿於幕北寒苦無水草之地，毋為也。」語卒而單于大怒，立斬主客見者，而留郭吉不歸，遷之北海上。而單于終不肯為寇於漢邊，休養息士馬，習射獵，數使使於漢，好辭甘言求請和親。

漢使王烏等窺匈奴。匈奴法，漢使非去節而以墨黥其面者不得入穹廬。王烏，北地人，習胡俗，去其節，黥面，得入穹廬。單于愛之，詳許甘言，為遣其太子入漢為質，以求和親。

漢使楊信於匈奴。是時漢東拔穢貉、朝鮮以為郡，而西置酒泉郡以鬲絕胡與羌通之路。漢又西通月氏、大夏，又以公主妻烏孫王，以分匈奴西方之援國。又北益廣田至胘雷為塞，而匈奴終不敢以為言。是歲，翕侯信死，漢用事者以匈奴為已弱，可臣從也。楊信為人剛直屈彊，素非貴臣，單于不親。單于欲召入，不肯去節，單于乃坐穹廬外見楊信。楊信既見單于，說曰：「即欲和親，以單于太子為質於漢。」單于曰：「非故約。故約，漢常遣翁主，給繒絮食物有品，以和親，而匈奴亦不擾邊。今乃欲反古，令吾太子為質，無幾矣。」匈奴俗，見漢使非中貴人，其儒先，以為欲說，折其辯；其少年，以為欲刺，折其氣。每漢使入匈奴，匈奴輒報償。漢留匈奴使，匈奴亦留漢使，必得當乃肯止。

楊信既歸，漢使王烏，而單于復肴甘言，欲多得漢財物，紿謂王烏曰：「吾欲入漢見天子，面相約為兄弟。」王烏歸報漢，漢為單于筑邸于長安。匈奴曰：「非得漢貴人使，吾不與誠語。」匈奴使其貴人至漢，病，漢予藥，欲愈之，不幸而死。而漢使路充國佩二千石印綬往使，因送其喪，厚葬直數千金，曰「此漢貴人也」。單于以為漢殺吾貴使者，乃留路充國不歸。諸所言者，單于特空紿王烏，殊無意入漢及遣太子來質。於是匈奴數使奇兵侵犯邊。漢乃拜郭昌為拔胡將軍，及浞野侯屯朔方以東，備胡。路充國留匈奴三歲，單于死。

烏維單于立十歲而死，子烏師廬立為單于。年少，號為兒單于。是歲元封六年也。自此之後，單于益西北，左方兵直雲中，右方直酒泉、燉煌郡。

兒單于立，漢使兩使者，一弔單于，一弔右賢王，欲以乖其國。使者入匈奴，匈奴悉將致單于。單于怒而盡留漢使。漢使留匈奴者前後十餘輩，而匈奴使來，漢亦輒留相當。

是歲，漢使貳師將軍廣利西伐大宛，而令因杅將軍敖筑受降城。其冬，匈奴大雨雪，畜多饑寒死。兒單于年少，好殺伐，國人多不安。左大都尉欲殺單于，使人閒告漢曰：「我欲殺單于降漢，漢遠，即兵來迎我，我即發。」初，漢聞此言，故筑受降城，猶以為遠。

其明年春，漢使浞野侯破奴將二萬餘騎出朔方西北二千餘里，期至浚稽山而還。浞野侯既至期而還，左大都尉欲發而覺，單于誅之，發左方兵擊浞野。浞野侯行捕首虜得數千人。還，未至受降城四百里，匈奴兵八萬騎圍之。浞野侯夜自出求水，匈奴閒捕，生得浞野侯，因急擊其軍。軍中郭縱為護，維王為渠，相與謀曰：「及諸校尉畏亡將軍而誅之，莫相勸歸。」軍遂沒於匈奴。匈奴兒單于大喜，遂遣奇兵攻受降城。不能下，乃寇入邊而去。其明年，單于欲自攻受降城，未至，病死。

兒單于立三歲而死。子年少，匈奴乃立其季父烏維單于弟右賢王呴犁湖為單于。是歲太初三年也。

呴犁湖單于立，漢使光祿徐自為出五原塞數百里，遠者千餘里，筑城鄣列亭至廬朐，而使游擊將軍韓說、長平侯衛伉屯其旁，使彊弩都尉路博德筑居延澤上。

其秋，匈奴大入定襄、雲中，殺略數千人，敗數二千石而去，行破壞光祿所筑城列亭鄣。又使右賢王入酒泉、張掖，略數千人。會任文擊救，盡復失所得而去。是歲，貳師將軍破大宛，斬其王而還。匈奴欲遮之，不能至。其冬，欲攻受降城，會單于病死。

呴犁湖單于立一歲死。匈奴乃立其弟左大都尉且鞮侯為單于。

漢既誅大宛，威震外國。天子意欲遂困胡，乃下詔曰：「高皇帝遺朕平城之憂，高后時單于書絕悖逆。昔齊襄公復九世之讎，春秋大之。」是歲太初四年也。

且鞮侯單于既立，盡歸漢使之不降者。路充國等得歸。單于初立，恐漢襲之，乃自謂「我兒子，安敢望漢天子！漢天子，我丈人行也」。漢遣中郎將蘇武厚幣賂遺單于。單于益驕，禮甚倨，非漢所望也。其明年，浞野侯破奴得亡歸漢。

其明年，漢使貳師將軍廣利以三萬騎出酒泉，擊右賢王於天山，得胡首虜萬餘級而還。匈奴大圍貳師將軍，幾不脫。漢兵物故什六七。漢復使因杅將軍敖出西河，與彊弩都尉會涿涂山，毋所得。又使騎都尉李陵將步騎五千人，出居延北千餘里，與單于會，合戰，陵所殺傷萬餘人，兵及食盡，欲解歸，匈奴圍陵，陵降匈奴，其兵遂沒，得還者四百人。單于乃貴陵，以其女妻之。

後二歲，復使貳師將軍將六萬騎，步兵十萬，出朔方。彊弩都尉路博德將萬餘人，與貳師會。游擊將軍說將步騎三萬人，出五原。因杅將軍敖將萬騎步兵三萬人，出鴈門。匈奴聞，悉遠其累重於余吾水北，而單于以十萬騎待水南，與貳師將軍接戰。貳師乃解而引歸，與單于連戰十餘日。貳師聞其家以巫蠱族滅，因并眾降匈奴，得來還千人一兩人耳。游擊說無所得。因杅敖與左賢王戰，不利，引歸。是歲漢兵之出擊匈奴者不得言功多少，功不得御。有詔捕太醫令隨但，言貳師將軍家室族滅，使廣利得降匈奴。

太史公曰：孔氏著春秋，隱桓之閒則章，至定哀之際則微，為其切當世之文而罔褒，忌諱之辭也。世俗之言匈奴者，患其徼一時之權，而務莖讇納其說，以便偏指，不參彼己；將率席中國廣大，氣奮，人主因以決策，是以建功不深。堯雖賢，興事業不成，得禹而九州寧。且欲興聖統，唯在擇任將相哉！唯在擇任將相哉！

Source Colophon

The source text was inspected from Chinese Text Project, Sima Qian, Shiji, Xiongnu Liezhuan, using the on-disk source capture and the companion archival source-text page for this project. The English rendering above presents the unified source chapter in English.

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