Zhang Qian, Wusun, Anxi, and the Heavenly Horses

This is a Good Works Translation produced by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese text of Sima Qian's Shiji, chapter 123, the Dawan Liezhuan.

The chapter follows Zhang Qian's western mission and the opening of Han knowledge of Dawan, Dayuezhi, Daxia, Kangju, Wusun, Anxi, and the western embassy road. It then turns to Emperor Wu's desire for the horses of Dawan and the war that followed.

For the Scythian shelf, Shiji 123 is the Chinese narrative doorway into the same Inner Asian world that Greek, Iranian, and later Chinese witnesses describe from other sides: Yuezhi movement, Wusun power, Kangju, Ferghana, Bactria, Anxi, oasis diplomacy, and the cost of imperial desire across the steppe road.

The English translation was newly made from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. Existing English displays and translations were used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Translation

Zhang Qian and the Western Kingdoms

The traces of Dawan first appear from Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian was a man of Hanzhong. In the Jianyuan period he served as a gentleman. At that time the Son of Heaven questioned Xiongnu men who had surrendered. They all said that the Xiongnu had broken the king of the Yuezhi and made his head into a drinking vessel. The Yuezhi had fled away and constantly resented the Xiongnu, but had no one with whom to join in striking them.

Han was just then wishing to take action to destroy the Hu. Hearing this report, it therefore wished to open an embassy. The road necessarily passed through the middle of the Xiongnu, so it recruited someone capable of serving as envoy. Qian, as a gentleman, answered the recruitment and was sent to the Yuezhi. Together with Ganfu, a Hu slave of the Tangyi clan, he went out from Longxi. Passing through the Xiongnu, he was captured by the Xiongnu and passed along to the chanyu.

The chanyu detained him and said, "The Yuezhi are north of me. How can Han be allowed to send an envoy there? If I wished to send an envoy to Yue, would Han be willing to let me?" He detained Qian for more than ten years. Qian took a wife and had a son, yet he held the Han credential staff and did not lose it.

While he was living among the Xiongnu, conditions became somewhat easier. Qian therefore escaped with his followers and went toward the Yuezhi, running west for several tens of days until he reached Dawan. Dawan had heard that Han was rich in goods and had wanted to communicate but could not. When they saw Qian they were pleased and asked, "Where do you wish to go?"

Qian said, "I was sent by Han as envoy to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked the road. Now I have escaped. If only the king will send men to guide and escort me. If I truly reach them and return to Han, the goods and gifts that Han will send the king cannot be fully told." Dawan thought this correct and sent Qian on, providing guides and interpreters. He reached Kangju, and Kangju passed him on to the Great Yuezhi.

The king of the Great Yuezhi had already been killed by the Hu, and his crown prince had been established as king. Since they had made Daxia their subject and dwelt there, the land was fertile and rich, there were few raiders, and their will was set on peace and pleasure. They also considered themselves far from Han and had no particular intention of taking revenge on the Hu. Qian went from the Yuezhi to Daxia, but in the end he could not obtain the Yuezhi's essential agreement.

He remained more than a year, then returned, keeping along the Southern Mountains and intending to go home through the Qiang. He was again captured by the Xiongnu. After he had been detained more than a year, the chanyu died. The Left Guli King attacked the chanyu's crown prince and set himself up; the country was in disorder. Qian, with his Hu wife and Tangyi Fu, all escaped and returned to Han. Han appointed Qian grand palace grandee, and Tangyi Fu became Lord of Envoys.

Qian was strong and resolute as a man, generous and trustworthy, and the Man and Yi loved him. Tangyi Fu was originally a Hu; he was good at archery, and when they were poor or in danger he shot birds and beasts to supply food. At the beginning, when Qian set out, there had been more than a hundred men. After thirteen years away, only two men were able to return.

Dawan lies southwest of the Xiongnu and due west of Han, perhaps ten thousand li from Han. By its custom the people are settled on the soil. They plough fields and grow rice and wheat. They have grape wine. They have many good horses, horses that sweat blood, whose ancestors were foals of heavenly horses. They have walled cities and houses. Their dependent towns, large and small, number more than seventy cities, and the people may number several hundred thousand. Their soldiers use bows and spears and ride and shoot.

North of Dawan is Kangju; west is the Great Yuezhi; southwest is Daxia; northeast is Wusun; east are Yumi and Yutian. West of Yutian, all waters flow west and pour into the Western Sea. East of it, waters flow east and pour into the Salt Marsh. The Salt Marsh runs hidden underground, and south of it the source of the Yellow River emerges. There are many jades and stones, and the Yellow River pours into the Middle States. The cities of Loulan and Gushi have walled towns and stand near the Salt Marsh. The Salt Marsh is perhaps five thousand li from Chang'an. The right side of the Xiongnu dwells east of the Salt Marsh down to the Long Wall of Longxi, touching the Qiang in the south and cutting off the Han road.

Wusun lies northeast of Dawan, perhaps two thousand li away. It is a moving state, following its herds, with customs the same as the Xiongnu. Those who draw the bow number several tens of thousands, and they dare to fight. Formerly they were subject to the Xiongnu; when they became strong, they took only a loose dependent relation and would not go to court assemblies.

Kangju lies northwest of Dawan, perhaps two thousand li away. It is a moving state, with customs largely the same as the Yuezhi. Those who draw the bow number eighty or ninety thousand. It borders Dawan. The state is small; in the south it serves the Yuezhi as a dependent, and in the east it serves the Xiongnu as a dependent.

Yancai lies northwest of Kangju, perhaps two thousand li away. It is a moving state, with customs largely the same as Kangju. Those who draw the bow number more than a hundred thousand. It borders a great marsh without banks; this is probably what is called the Northern Sea.

The Great Yuezhi lie west of Dawan, perhaps two or three thousand li away, dwelling north of the Gui River. To their south is Daxia, to their west Anxi, and to their north Kangju. They are a moving state, following the herds in migration, with customs the same as the Xiongnu. Those who draw the bow may number one or two hundred thousand. In former times they were strong and made light of the Xiongnu. When Maodun rose, he attacked and broke the Yuezhi. By the time of the Xiongnu Laoshang Chanyu, the Xiongnu killed the king of the Yuezhi and made his head into a drinking vessel.

At first the Yuezhi dwelt between Dunhuang and Qilian. When they were defeated by the Xiongnu, they went far away, passed beyond Dawan, struck Daxia in the west and made it subject, and then established their royal court north of the Gui River. The remaining small groups that could not go away protected themselves among the Qiang of the Southern Mountains and were called the Lesser Yuezhi.

Anxi lies west of the Great Yuezhi, perhaps several thousand li away. By their custom the people are settled on the soil. They plough fields and grow rice and wheat and grape wine. Their walled towns are like those of Dawan. Their dependent cities, large and small, number several hundred, and the land measures several thousand li square. It is the largest state. It borders the Gui River and has markets. The people, merchants, and traders use carts and boats and travel to neighboring states, sometimes several thousand li. They use silver as money. The money bears the face of their king; whenever a king dies, they change the money and model it on the new king's face. They write records horizontally on leather. To their west is Tiaozhi; to the north are Yancai and Lixuan.

Tiaozhi lies several thousand li west of Anxi, bordering the Western Sea. It is hot and damp. The people plough fields and grow rice. There are great birds whose eggs are like jars. The people are very numerous. Here and there they have lesser chiefs, and Anxi controls them as an outer state. The country is good at conjuring. The elders of Anxi have passed down reports that Tiaozhi has the Weak Water and the Queen Mother of the West, but they have never seen them.

Daxia lies more than two thousand li southwest of Dawan, south of the Gui River. By their custom the people are settled on the soil, with walled cities and houses, and their customs are the same as Dawan. They have no great ruler; here and there cities and towns establish lesser chiefs. Their soldiers are weak and fear war. They are good at trade and markets. When the Great Yuezhi migrated west, they attacked and defeated Daxia, and all made Daxia their dependent. The people of Daxia are numerous, perhaps more than a million. Their capital is called Lanshi City. It has a market where all sorts of things are bought and sold. Southeast of it is the state of Shendu.

Qian said: "When I was in Daxia, I saw bamboo staffs from Qiong and cloth from Shu. I asked, 'How did you get these?' The people of Daxia said, 'Our merchants go and buy them in the markets of Shendu. Shendu is perhaps several thousand li southeast of Daxia. By custom its people are settled on the soil, very similar to Daxia, but the country is low, damp, hot, and humid. Its people ride elephants in battle. The state borders a great water.'

"By my estimate, Daxia is twelve thousand li from Han and lies southwest of Han. Now the state of Shendu lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia and has goods from Shu; this means it cannot be far from Shu. If we now send envoys to Daxia through the Qiang, the way is dangerous, and the Qiang people hate it. If we go a little north, we are captured by the Xiongnu. The route from Shu should be direct, and it has no raiders."

After the Son of Heaven heard that Dawan, Daxia, Anxi, and the states of their kind were all great states with many strange goods, settled on the soil, rather similar to the Middle States in their occupations, weak in arms, and valuing Han goods, and that north of them were the Great Yuezhi and Kangju, whose soldiers were strong and who could be induced to come to court by gifts and profit, he was delighted. If he could truly attach them by righteousness, then he would broaden the lands by ten thousand li, pass through nine layers of interpreters, bring in different customs, and cause awe and virtue to spread over the four seas. The Son of Heaven was pleased and considered Qian's words correct.

He then ordered Qian, through Shu and Jianwei, to send secret envoys by four roads at once: out through Mang, out through Ran, out through Xi, and out through Qiong and Bo. Each went one or two thousand li. In the north they were blocked by Di and Zuo, and in the south by Xi and Kunming. The peoples of Kunming had no chiefs, were good at raiding and banditry, and repeatedly killed and carried off Han envoys, so in the end no route could be opened. Yet it was heard that more than a thousand li west of them there was a state that rode elephants, called Dianyue, and merchants from Shu who smuggled goods out sometimes reached it. Thus Han, in seeking the route to Daxia, first opened communication with the state of Dian. At first Han had wanted to open communication with the southwestern Yi. The expense was great, the road did not open, and it stopped. When Zhang Qian said that it was possible to reach Daxia, it again took up the business of the southwestern Yi.

Qian, as commandant, followed the grand general in striking the Xiongnu. Because he knew the places of water and grass, the army was able not to lack supplies. He was therefore enfeoffed as Marquis of Bowang. This year was the sixth year of Yuanshuo. The next year Qian became commandant of the guards and went out from Youbeiping with General Li to strike the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu surrounded General Li, and the army suffered many losses. Qian arrived after the appointed time and deserved beheading, but redeemed himself and became a commoner.

In this year Han sent the cavalry general to break several tens of thousands of Xiongnu in the western regions and reach the Qilian Mountains. The next year the King of Hunye led his people and surrendered to Han, and Jincheng and Hexi westward along the Southern Mountains to the Salt Marsh became empty of Xiongnu. Xiongnu scouts sometimes arrived, but rarely. Two years later, Han struck the chanyu and drove him away north of the desert.

After this, the Son of Heaven repeatedly questioned Qian about Daxia and its kind. Qian had already lost his marquisate. He therefore said: "When I was living among the Xiongnu, I heard that the Wusun king was titled Kunmo. The father of Kunmo had ruled a small state on the western border of the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu attacked and killed his father, and Kunmo, newly born, was abandoned in the wilds. Birds held meat in their beaks and flew over him, and wolves came to suckle him. The chanyu marveled at this, considered him divine, took him in, and raised him.

"When he grew up, the chanyu made him command troops, and he repeatedly won merit. The chanyu then gave Kunmo his father's people and ordered him to be their chief, guarding the western regions. Kunmo gathered and nourished his people, attacked neighboring small towns, and had several tens of thousands who drew the bow and were practiced in attack and battle. When the chanyu died, Kunmo led his multitude far away, standing neutral and refusing to attend Xiongnu court assemblies. The Xiongnu sent surprise troops to attack him but did not prevail. They considered him divine and kept away from him, and therefore held him as a loose dependent but did not attack him in force.

"Now the chanyu has newly been brought into difficulty by Han, and the former land of Hunye is empty of people. By the custom of the Man and Yi, they covet Han goods. If at this time we sincerely use generous gifts and bribes for Wusun, summon them to move farther east, settle in the former lands of Hunye, and bind them to Han as elder and younger brothers, circumstances suggest they will listen. If they listen, this will cut off the Xiongnu's right arm. Once Wusun has been linked to us, from its west Daxia and the states of that kind can all be summoned to come and become outer vassals."

The Son of Heaven considered this correct. He appointed Qian as general of palace gentlemen, giving him three hundred men, two horses for each, cattle and sheep numbered by tens of thousands, and gold, money, and silks worth several thousand great myriads. He also carried many credential staffs for deputy envoys, so that wherever roads allowed envoys to be sent, he could send gifts to other neighboring states.

When Qian reached Wusun, Kunmo, the king of Wusun, received the Han envoy according to the ritual used for the chanyu. Qian was deeply ashamed. Knowing that the Man and Yi were greedy, he said, "The Son of Heaven has sent gifts. If the king does not bow, the gifts will be returned." Kunmo rose and bowed to the gifts, but the rest remained as before.

Qian explained the mission's intention, saying, "If Wusun can move east and dwell in the land of Hunye, Han will send an imperial clanswoman to be Kunmo's wife." The state of Wusun was divided. The king was old and far from Han. He did not know Han's size, and he had long been subject to the Xiongnu and was also near them. All his great ministers feared the Hu and did not want to move, and the king could not make the decision alone. Qian could not obtain his essential agreement.

Kunmo had more than ten sons. The middle son was called Dalu. He was strong and good at commanding a multitude, and led his people to live separately with more than ten thousand cavalry. Dalu's elder brother had been crown prince. The crown prince had a son called Cenqu, but the crown prince died early. At his death he told his father Kunmo, "You must make Cenqu crown prince; do not let another man replace him." Kunmo pitied him and agreed, and in the end made Cenqu crown prince. Dalu was angry that he had not been able to replace the crown prince, and therefore gathered his brothers, led his multitude in rebellion, and plotted to attack Cenqu and Kunmo. Kunmo was old and constantly feared that Dalu would kill Cenqu. He gave Cenqu more than ten thousand cavalry and had him live separately, while Kunmo also had more than ten thousand cavalry to defend himself. The state's multitude was divided into three, but in the general total it still remained loosely dependent on Kunmo. For this reason also, Kunmo did not dare make an agreement alone with Qian.

Wusun, Anxi, and the Western Embassy Road

Qian therefore divided and sent deputy envoys to Dawan, Kangju, the Great Yuezhi, Daxia, Anxi, Shendu, Yutian, Yumi, and all the neighboring states. Wusun provided guides and interpreters to escort Qian back. Qian and Wusun sent several tens of envoys and several tens of horses to return thanks, and at the same time ordered them to observe Han and learn its vastness.

When Qian returned and arrived, he was appointed grand herald and ranked among the nine ministers. A little more than a year later, he died.

After the Wusun envoys had seen that the Han people were numerous, rich, and generous, they returned and reported this to their state, and their state then gave still greater weight to Han. More than a year after this, the envoys whom Qian had sent to open communication with Daxia and the states of its kind all came back, many bringing people from those states with them. From this time the states of the northwest first opened communication with Han. Yet it was Zhang Qian who had cut open the empty way. Later envoys who went there all called themselves Marquis of Bowang as a token of standing in the foreign states, and because of this the foreign states trusted them.

After the Marquis of Bowang Qian died, the Xiongnu heard that Han had opened communication with Wusun and were angry, wanting to attack Wusun. When Han envoys to Wusun went out by the southern route and reached Dawan and the Great Yuezhi one after another, Wusun became afraid. It sent envoys to offer horses and asked to receive a Han imperial clanswoman in marriage, becoming elder and younger brothers. The Son of Heaven asked his assembled ministers to discuss the plan. They all said, "They must first send betrothal gifts, and only afterward should a daughter be sent."

At first the Son of Heaven had opened the Book of Changes and said, "Divine horses will come from the northwest." When he obtained the good Wusun horses, he named them "heavenly horses." When he later obtained the blood-sweating horses of Dawan, he valued them still more and changed the name of the Wusun horses to "western-limit horses," naming the Dawan horses "heavenly horses."

Han then first built westward from Lingju and first established Jiuquan Commandery in order to open communication with the northwestern states. Thereupon it sent even more envoys to reach Anxi, Yancai, Lixuan, Tiaozhi, and Shendu. The Son of Heaven loved the horses of Dawan, and envoys could be seen one after another on the road. Among those sent to foreign states, a single group might be several hundred men at the largest, and more than a hundred at the smallest. The goods each man carried were in general modeled on the time of the Marquis of Bowang. Later, as they grew more accustomed to the road, the numbers declined somewhat. In a typical year Han sent more than ten groups in the busiest years, and five or six in the fewer years. The farthest returned after eight or nine years; the nearer after several years.

At this time Han had already destroyed Yue, and Shu and the southwestern Yi were all shaken and requested officials and entry to court. Then Han established Yizhou, Yuexi, Zangke, Shenli, and Wenshan commanderies, wishing to connect the territory forward and thereby open communication with Daxia. It then sent envoys such as Bai Shichang and Lü Yueren, more than ten groups each year, out from these new commanderies to reach Daxia. They were all again blocked by Kunming; they were killed, and their money and goods were seized. In the end none could open the route and reach Daxia.

Then Han mobilized convicts from the Three Adjuncts and several tens of thousands of soldiers from Ba and Shu, sending two generals, Guo Chang and Wei Guang, to attack those among the Kunming who were blocking Han envoys. They beheaded and captured several tens of thousands and left. Afterward, when envoys were sent, Kunming again became raiders, and in the end no communication could be obtained. But on the northern road, from Jiuquan to Daxia, the envoys were already numerous, and the foreign states became increasingly tired of Han money and did not value its goods.

Since the Marquis of Bowang had opened the road to foreign states and thereby gained honor and nobility, those who had served as his officials and soldiers afterward all competed to submit letters speaking of the marvels and advantages and dangers of foreign states, seeking to be sent as envoys. Because the Son of Heaven considered the route absolutely distant and not a place where men were happy to go, he listened to their words, gave them credential staffs, recruited officials and commoners without asking where they came from, equipped them with people and supplies, and sent them out in order to broaden the road.

When they came back, they could not avoid having stolen or embezzled money and goods, and sometimes they had lost the mission's intent. Because the Son of Heaven wanted them to become practiced in the work, he would repeatedly reopen the cases, bring heavy charges, and use anger to make them redeem themselves by again seeking to be sent. The beginnings of embassies had no end, and they lightly violated the law.

Their officials and soldiers also repeatedly and extravagantly promoted what the foreign states possessed. Those who described great matters were given credential staffs; those who described lesser matters became deputies. Thus reckless and conductless men all competed to imitate them. These envoys were all sons of poor families. They privately treated the goods supplied by the county offices as their own, wishing to buy cheaply in the foreign states for their private profit.

The foreign states also became tired of Han envoys. Everyone had something to say, some heavy and some light. They judged that Han armies were far away and could not reach them, and so withheld food and goods in order to distress Han envoys. Han envoys, lacking and cut off, accumulated resentment, to the point that they attacked one another.

Loulan and Gushi were only small states, but they stood in the empty road and attacked and plundered Han envoys such as Wang Hui especially severely. Xiongnu surprise troops also from time to time intercepted and struck envoys going to the western states. The envoys competed to speak everywhere of the foreign states' injuries and dangers, saying that all had walled cities, weak soldiers, and were easy to attack.

Then the Son of Heaven, for this reason, sent the Marquis Congpiao, Ponu, to command dependent-state cavalry and commandery troops, several tens of thousands in all, as far as the Xiongnu River, intending thereby to strike the Hu. The Hu all went away. The next year he struck Gushi. Ponu, with more than seven hundred light cavalry, arrived first, captured the king of Loulan, and then broke Gushi. He then raised military awe in order to pressure Wusun, Dawan, and the states of their kind. On his return, Ponu was enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhuoye. Wang Hui had repeatedly served as envoy and been distressed by Loulan. He spoke of it to the Son of Heaven. The Son of Heaven mobilized troops and ordered Hui to assist Ponu in striking and breaking it, and enfeoffed Hui as Marquis of Hao. From this time Jiuquan had a line of watch-stations and barriers reaching to the Jade Gate.

Wusun sent a thousand horses as betrothal gifts for a Han daughter. Han sent an imperial clanswoman, the Princess of Jiangdu, to go and marry Wusun, and Kunmo, king of Wusun, made her his right wife. The Xiongnu also sent a daughter to marry Kunmo, and Kunmo made her his left wife. Kunmo said, "I am old," and ordered his grandson Cenqu to marry the imperial clanswoman. Wusun had many horses; among its rich men, some had as many as four or five thousand horses.

At first, when Han envoys reached Anxi, the king of Anxi ordered a general with twenty thousand cavalry to welcome them at the eastern border. The eastern border was several thousand li from the royal capital. As they travelled until they arrived, they passed several tens of cities, and the people were continuous and very numerous. When the Han envoys returned, Anxi later sent envoys to follow the Han envoys and come observe the vastness of Han. They offered to Han great bird eggs and skilled conjurers from Lixuan. The small states west of Dawan, Huanqian and Dayi, and the states east of Dawan, Gushi, Yumi, Suxie, and their kind, all followed Han envoys, offered tribute, and appeared before the Son of Heaven. The Son of Heaven was greatly pleased.

Han envoys traced the source of the Yellow River. The source came from Yutian, and its mountains had many jades and stones. They collected them and brought them back. The Son of Heaven checked the ancient maps and books and named the mountain from which the Yellow River came Kunlun.

At this time the emperor was frequently touring and hunting by the sea. He therefore brought all the foreign guests along with him. In great cities with many people he surpassed normal display, scattering wealth and silks as rewards and gifts and richly furnishing supplies for them, in order to show them Han's wealth and abundance. Then there were great wrestling contests, unusual entertainments, and all sorts of strange things. Many spectators gathered, rewards and gifts were distributed, there were pools of wine and forests of meat, and the foreign guests were ordered to look everywhere at the accumulated stores in each granary, treasury, office, and storehouse, so that they would see Han's vastness and be overwhelmed and astonished.

When the skills of their conjurers were added, the wrestling and strange entertainments increased and changed year by year. They became extremely flourishing and rose still more from this time.

The envoys of the foreign states of the northwest came and went by turns. The states west of Dawan all considered themselves distant, and remained proud, self-indulgent, and at ease. They could not yet be bent by ritual, loosely bound, and made to serve. From Wusun west to Anxi, because they were near the Xiongnu and because the Xiongnu had distressed the Yuezhi, if a Xiongnu envoy carried one token of trust from the chanyu, state after state passed him on and supplied food, not daring to detain or distress him. But when Han envoys arrived, unless they brought money and silk, they did not obtain food; unless they bought livestock, they did not obtain mounts for use. The reason was that Han was far away and had many goods. Therefore only by trade could they get what they wanted; yet they feared the Xiongnu more than Han envoys.

Around Dawan they used grapes to make wine. Rich men stored wine to as much as more than ten thousand shi, and old wine did not spoil for several tens of years. By custom they loved wine, and their horses loved alfalfa. Han envoys took the seeds and brought them back. Then the Son of Heaven first planted alfalfa and grapes in rich and fertile ground. When heavenly horses became numerous and many foreign envoys came, the sides of the detached palaces and separate viewing towers were all planted with grapes and alfalfa as far as the eye could see.

From Dawan west to Anxi, although the languages of the states were somewhat different, their customs were largely the same, and they understood one another's speech. Their people all had deep-set eyes and many beards and whiskers. They were good at markets and trade and competed over fractions of weight. By custom they valued women; what the women said, the men then decided as correct. Their lands all lacked silk and lacquer and did not know how to cast money and vessels. After fugitive Han soldiers surrendered, they taught them casting and the making of other weapons. When they obtained Han yellow and white gold, they always made it into vessels and did not use it as currency.

The War for the Heavenly Horses

After Han envoys had gone there in great numbers, their younger followers often entered familiar access to the Son of Heaven and said, "Dawan has good horses at the city of Ershi, but hides them and refuses to give them to Han envoys." The Son of Heaven already loved the horses of Dawan. When he heard this, it pleased his heart, and he sent strong men, including the carriage commandant, carrying a thousand jin of gold and a golden horse, to request the good horses of Ershi City from the king of Dawan.

The state of Dawan already had an abundance of Han goods. They plotted together and said, "Han is far from us. In the middle of the Salt Water it has often been defeated. If it comes out by the northern route, there are Hu raiders; if it comes out by the southern route, water and grass are lacking. Moreover, the settlements are often cut off from one another, and those who lack food are many. Han envoys come in groups of several hundred, yet they always lack food, and more than half die. How can Han bring a great army here? It can do nothing to us. Besides, the Ershi horses are the treasured horses of Dawan." Therefore they refused to give them to the Han envoys.

The Han envoys became angry, spoke recklessly, smashed the golden horse with a hammer, and left. The nobles of Dawan were angry and said, "The Han envoys have treated us with the utmost contempt." When the Han envoys departed, Dawan ordered Yucheng on its eastern border to intercept, attack, and kill them, and to take their goods and property.

Then the Son of Heaven was greatly enraged. Yao Dinghan and others who had served as envoys to Dawan said that Dawan's soldiers were weak, and that if Han honestly used no more than three thousand men, shooting with strong crossbows, it would capture and break all of Dawan. The Son of Heaven had already once sent the Marquis of Zhuoye to attack Loulan, where he had arrived first with seven hundred cavalry and captured its king. He considered what Dinghan and the others said correct. Wishing to ennoble the Li clan, kin of a favored consort, he appointed Li Guangli as General of Ershi, mobilized six thousand cavalry from the dependent states and several tens of thousands of bad youths from the commanderies and kingdoms, and sent them to campaign against Dawan. The expectation was that they would reach Ershi City and take the good horses; therefore he was titled General of Ershi. Zhao Shicheng became army corrector; Wang Hui, the former Marquis of Hao, was sent to guide the army; and Li Duo became commandant and controlled military affairs. This year was the first year of Taichu. East of the passes, locusts rose in great numbers and flew west as far as Dunhuang.

After the army of the General of Ershi had gone west past the Salt Water, the small states along the road were afraid. Each shut its walls and held firm, refusing to supply food. When attacked, they could not be taken; when a place was taken, food was obtained; when it was not taken, after several days the army left. By the time they reached Yucheng, the soldiers who arrived numbered no more than several thousand, and all were hungry and exhausted.

They attacked Yucheng. Yucheng greatly defeated them, killing and wounding very many. The General of Ershi planned with Duo, Shicheng, and the others: "If we still cannot take Yucheng, how much less can we reach its royal capital?" He led the troops back. Going and returning took two years. When they came back to Dunhuang, no more than one or two in ten of the soldiers remained.

They sent envoys with a letter to the throne, saying, "The road is far and there are many shortages of food. Moreover, the soldiers do not fear battle; they fear hunger. The number of men is small and not enough to take Dawan. We ask that the army be dismissed for now, and that more men be sent so we may go again." When the Son of Heaven heard this, he was greatly enraged and sent envoys to block the Jade Gate, saying that any soldier of the army who dared enter should be beheaded at once. Ershi was afraid and therefore remained at Dunhuang.

That summer Han lost the more than twenty thousand troops of Zhuoye among the Xiongnu. The ministers and those who took part in discussion all wished to end the army attacking Dawan and concentrate strength on attacking the Hu. The Son of Heaven had already undertaken the punishment of Dawan. If a small state such as Dawan could not be taken, then Daxia and the states of its kind would make light of Han, the good horses of Dawan would be cut off and not come, Wusun and Luntou would easily distress Han envoys, and Han would be laughed at by foreign states.

He therefore investigated Deng Guang and the others who had said that attacking Dawan was especially disadvantageous. He pardoned prisoners and trained soldiers, sent even more bad youths and frontier cavalry, and after more than a year those who went out from Dunhuang numbered sixty thousand men, not counting private followers with their own baggage. There were a hundred thousand cattle, more than thirty thousand horses, and donkeys, mules, and camels by the tens of thousands. They carried much grain, and soldiers and crossbows were very fully prepared. All under Heaven was stirred and disturbed. Supply convoys were linked together in service of the campaign against Dawan. Altogether there were more than fifty commandants.

The royal city of Dawan had no wells; all drew flowing water from outside the city. Therefore Han sent water engineers to move the water channels below the city, in order to empty the city. It also mobilized another hundred and eighty thousand armored garrison troops, set Juyan and Xiutu north of Jiuquan and Zhangye to guard Jiuquan, and mobilized seven classes of convicts from throughout the realm, as well as carriers of dried grain, to supply Ershi. Transport carts and men stretched continuously to Dunhuang. Two men skilled in horses were appointed commandants for driving and selecting, to prepare, when Dawan was broken, to choose and take its good horses.

Then Ershi went out again. His troops were many, and wherever he arrived, the small states all welcomed him and brought out food to supply the army. When he reached Luntou, Luntou would not surrender. He attacked it for several days and slaughtered it. From there westward, he marched levelly to the city of Dawan. The Han troops who arrived numbered thirty thousand.

The troops of Dawan came out to meet and strike the Han troops. The Han troops shot and defeated them, and Dawan fled inside and protected itself by holding its city. Ershi's troops wanted to go attack Yucheng, but feared that if they delayed the march they would let Dawan produce more deceit. Therefore they first came to Dawan, cut off its water source, and moved it. Dawan was already deeply worried and distressed. They surrounded the city and attacked it for more than forty days. Its outer wall broke, and the brave Dawan noble and general Jianmi was captured. Dawan was greatly afraid and fled into the inner city.

The nobles of Dawan plotted together, saying, "The reason Han is attacking Dawan is that King Wugua hid the good horses and killed the Han envoys. If we now kill King Wugua and bring out the good horses, the Han troops should withdraw. If they do not withdraw, then we can fight with all strength and die; it will not be too late." The nobles of Dawan all considered this correct. Together they killed their king Wugua, took his head, and sent nobles as envoys to Ershi to make an agreement, saying: "Let Han not attack us. We will bring out all the good horses and let you take whatever you wish, and we will supply food to the Han army. If you do not listen, we will kill all the good horses, and the relief from Kangju is about to arrive. When it arrives, we will occupy the inside and Kangju will occupy the outside, and together we will fight the Han army. Let the Han army make a mature calculation: which course will you follow?"

At this time Kangju was waiting and observing the Han troops. The Han troops were still strong, and Kangju did not dare advance. Ershi planned with Zhao Shicheng, Li Duo, and the others: "We have heard that in the city of Dawan there are newly arrived Qin men who know how to dig wells, and inside there is still much food. The reason we came was to punish the chief criminal, Wugua. Wugua's head has already arrived. If we do not agree and withdraw the troops, then they will defend firmly; Kangju will wait until Han is exhausted and then come to rescue Dawan, and the defeat of the Han army will be certain."

The army officers all considered this correct and agreed to Dawan's terms. Dawan then brought out its good horses and allowed Han to choose them for itself, and also brought out much food to feed and supply the Han army. The Han army took several tens of its good horses, and more than three thousand stallions and mares of middling quality and below. They established as king of Dawan a Dawan noble named Meicai, who had formerly treated Han envoys well, made a covenant with him, and withdrew the troops. In the end they did not enter the inner city, but dismissed the army and led it home.

At first, when Ershi set out westward from Dunhuang, he thought that because his men were many, the states along the road could not feed them. He therefore divided them into several armies, following the southern and northern roads. Commandant Wang Shensheng, Hu Chongguo, formerly of the office of grand herald, and more than a thousand men arrived separately at Yucheng. Yucheng defended the city and refused to supply food to their army. Wang Shensheng was two hundred li from the main army, relied on this and made light of Yucheng, and demanded supplies from it. Yucheng refused to bring food out. It observed that Shensheng's army was daily shrinking, and in the morning attacked with three thousand men, slaughtering Shensheng and the others. The army was broken; several men escaped and ran to Ershi.

Ershi ordered Shangguan Jie, commandant for gathering grain, to go attack and break Yucheng. The king of Yucheng fled to Kangju. Jie pursued him to Kangju. When Kangju heard that Han had already broken Dawan, it brought out the king of Yucheng and gave him to Jie. Jie ordered four cavalrymen to bind and guard him and bring him to the grand general. The four men said to one another, "The king of Yucheng is the one hated by the Han state. If we take him away alive now and he suddenly slips from this great affair, it will be a disaster." They wanted to kill him, but none dared strike first. Zhao Di, a cavalryman from Shanggui and the youngest among them, drew his sword, struck him, beheaded the king of Yucheng, and carried the head. Di, Jie, and the others caught up with the grand general.

At first, when Ershi went out the second time, the Son of Heaven sent envoys to tell Wusun to mobilize a great army and join forces in striking Dawan. Wusun sent two thousand cavalry, but held both ends and would not advance. When the General of Ershi turned east, all the small states through which he passed heard that Dawan had been broken. They all sent their sons and younger brothers to follow the army, enter and offer tribute, and appear before the Son of Heaven, thereby becoming hostages.

In Ershi's campaign against Dawan, army corrector Zhao Shicheng fought with strength and had the greatest merit. Shangguan Jie dared to penetrate deeply, and Li Duo made plans. More than ten thousand men of the army entered the Jade Gate, with more than a thousand army horses. In Ershi's second campaign, the army was not lacking in food, and not many died in battle; but the generals and officers were greedy and in many cases did not care for the soldiers. They encroached on them and seized from them, and because of this many died.

Because the Son of Heaven had campaigned ten thousand li against Dawan, he did not record the faults. He enfeoffed Guangli as Marquis of Haixi. He also enfeoffed Zhao Di, the cavalryman who had personally beheaded the king of Yucheng, as Marquis of Xinzhi. Army corrector Zhao Shicheng became grandee of the Guanglu office, Shangguan Jie became privy treasurer, and Li Duo became governor of Shangdang. Three army officials became nine ministers; more than a hundred became chancellors to feudal lords, commandery governors, or two-thousand-stone officials; and more than a thousand became thousand-stone officials or below. Those who had gone with energy received offices beyond their expectations; those who had gone because of criminal sentence all had their labor reduced. The soldiers were given rewards worth forty thousand jin of gold. The campaign against Dawan went out and back twice, and altogether after four years it was able to stop.

After Han had campaigned against Dawan, established Meicai as king of Dawan, and left, a little more than a year passed. The nobles of Dawan considered that Meicai had been good at flattery and had caused their state to suffer slaughter. Therefore they killed Meicai together, established Wugua's younger brother Chanfeng as king of Dawan, and sent his son into Han as hostage. Han then sent envoys with bribes and gifts to pacify and reassure them.

Han sent more than ten groups of envoys to the foreign states west of Dawan, seeking strange goods, and at the same time admonishing and displaying the awe and virtue of the campaign against Dawan. At Dunhuang it established the commandant of Jiuquan. Westward to the Salt Water there were watch-stations here and there. At Luntou there were several hundred agricultural garrison soldiers, and therefore Han established an envoy to protect the fields and accumulate grain in order to supply those who served as envoys to the foreign states.

The Grand Historian says: The Basic Annals of Yu says, "The Yellow River comes from Kunlun. Kunlun is more than two thousand five hundred li high, and the sun and moon avoid and hide behind one another there to make light. On its summit are the Sweet Spring and the Jasper Pool." Now after Zhang Qian's mission to Daxia, they traced the source of the Yellow River. Where did they see the Kunlun spoken of in the Basic Annals? Therefore, when speaking of the mountains and rivers of the Nine Provinces, the Documents are close to the truth. As for the strange things contained in the Basic Annals of Yu and the Classic of Mountains and Seas, I do not dare speak of them.

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was prepared for the Scythian shelf by the New Tianmu Anglican Church from the Classical Chinese source text printed below. The English is an independent rendering from the source-language Chinese, with existing English displays and translations used only as controls for difficult or conventional passages.

Compiled and formatted for the Good Work Library by the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: 史記 卷一百二十三 大宛列傳

Classical Chinese source text from Sima Qian's Shiji, chapter 123, the Dawan Liezhuan. Presented here for reference, study, and verification alongside the English translation above.

Zhang Qian and the Western Kingdoms

大宛之跡，見自張騫。張騫，漢中人。建元中為郎。是時天子問匈奴降者，皆言匈奴破月氏王，以其頭為飲器，月氏遁逃而常怨仇匈奴，無與共擊之。漢方欲事滅胡，聞此言，因欲通使。道必更匈奴中，乃募能使者。騫以郎應募，使月氏，與堂邑氏（故）胡奴甘父俱出隴西。經匈奴，匈奴得之，傳詣單于。單于留之，曰：「月氏在吾北，漢何以得往使？吾欲使越，漢肯聽我乎？」留騫十餘歲，與妻，有子，然騫持漢節不失。

居匈奴中，益寬，騫因與其屬亡鄉月氏，西走數十日至大宛。大宛聞漢之饒財，欲通不得，見騫，喜，問曰：「若欲何之？」騫曰：「為漢使月氏，而為匈奴所閉道。今亡，唯王使人導送我。誠得至，反漢，漢之賂遺王財物不可勝言。」大宛以為然，遣騫，為發導繹，抵康居，康居傳致大月氏。大月氏王已為胡所殺，立其太子為王。既臣大夏而居，地肥饒，少寇，志安樂，又自以遠漢，殊無報胡之心。騫從月氏至大夏，竟不能得月氏要領。

留歲餘，還，并南山，欲從羌中歸，復為匈奴所得。留歲餘，單于死，左谷蠡王攻其太子自立，國內亂，騫與胡妻及堂邑父俱亡歸漢。漢拜騫為太中大夫，堂邑父為奉使君。

騫為人彊力，寬大信人，蠻夷愛之。堂邑父故胡人，善射，窮急射禽獸給食。初，騫行時百餘人，去十三歲，唯二人得還。

大宛在匈奴西南，在漢正西，去漢可萬里。其俗土著，耕田，田稻麥。有蒲陶酒。多善馬，馬汗血，其先天馬子也。有城郭屋室。其屬邑大小七十餘城，眾可數十萬。其兵弓矛騎射。其北則康居，西則大月氏，西南則大夏，東北則烏孫，東則扜穼、于窴。于窴之西，則水皆西流，注西海；其東水東流，注鹽澤。鹽澤潛行地下，其南則河源出焉。多玉石，河注中國。而樓蘭、姑師邑有城郭，臨鹽澤。鹽澤去長安可五千里。匈奴右方居鹽澤以東，至隴西長城，南接羌，鬲漢道焉。

烏孫在大宛東北可二千里，行國，隨畜，與匈奴同俗。控弦者數萬，敢戰。故服匈奴，及盛，取其羈屬，不肯往朝會焉。

康居在大宛西北可二千里，行國，與月氏大同俗。控弦者八九萬人。與大宛鄰國。國小，南羈事月氏，東羈事匈奴。

奄蔡在康居西北可二千里，行國，與康居大同俗。控弦者十餘萬。臨大澤，無崖，蓋乃北海云。

大月氏在大宛西可二三千里，居媯水北。其南則大夏，西則安息，北則康居。行國也，隨畜移徙，與匈奴同俗。控弦者可一二十萬。故時彊，輕匈奴，及冒頓立，攻破月氏，至匈奴老上單于，殺月氏王，以其頭為飲器。始月氏居敦煌、祁連閒，及為匈奴所敗，乃遠去，過宛，西擊大夏而臣之，遂都媯水北，為王庭。其餘小眾不能去者，保南山羌，號小月氏。

安息在大月氏西可數千里。其俗土著，耕田，田稻麥，蒲陶酒。城邑如大宛。其屬小大數百城，地方數千里，最為大國。臨媯水，有市，民商賈用車及船，行旁國或數千里。以銀為錢，錢如其王面，王死輒更錢，效王面焉。畫革旁行以為書記。其西則條枝，北有奄蔡、黎軒。

條枝在安息西數千里，臨西海。暑溼。耕田，田稻。有大鳥，卵如甕。人眾甚多，往往有小君長，而安息役屬之，以為外國。國善眩。安息長老傳聞條枝有弱水、西王母，而未嘗見。

大夏在大宛西南二千餘里媯水南。其俗土著，有城屋，與大宛同俗。無大（王）［君］長，往往城邑置小長。其兵弱，畏戰。善賈市。及大月氏西徙，攻敗之，皆臣畜大夏。大夏民多，可百餘萬。其都曰藍市城，有市販賈諸物。其東南有身毒國。

騫曰：「臣在大夏時，見邛竹杖、蜀布。問曰：『安得此？』大夏國人曰：『吾賈人往市之身毒。身毒在大夏東南可數千里。其俗土著，大與大夏同，而卑溼暑熱云。其人民乘象以戰。其國臨大水焉。』以騫度之，大夏去漢萬二千里，居漢西南。今身毒國又居大夏東南數千里，有蜀物，此其去蜀不遠矣。今使大夏，從羌中，險，羌人惡之；少北，則為匈奴所得；從蜀宜徑，又無寇。」天子既聞大宛及大夏、安息之屬皆大國，多奇物，土著，頗與中國同業，而兵弱，貴漢財物；其北有大月氏、康居之屬，兵彊，可以賂遺設利朝也。且誠得而以義屬之，則廣地萬里，重九譯，致殊俗，威德遍於四海。天子欣然，以騫言為然，乃令騫因蜀犍為發閒使，四道并出：出駹，出冉，出徙，出邛、僰，皆各行一二千里。其北方閉氐、筰，南方閉巂、昆明。昆明之屬無君長，善寇盜，輒殺略漢使，終莫得通。然聞其西可千餘里有乘象國，名曰滇越，而蜀賈姦出物者或至焉，於是漢以求大夏道始通滇國。初，漢欲通西南夷，費多，道不通，罷之。及張騫言可以通大夏，乃復事西南夷。

騫以校尉從大將軍擊匈奴，知水草處，軍得以不乏，乃封騫為博望侯。是歲元朔六年也。其明年，騫為衛尉，與李將軍俱出右北平擊匈奴。匈奴圍李將軍，軍失亡多；而騫後期當斬，贖為庶人。是歲漢遣驃騎破匈奴西（城）［域］數萬人，至祁連山。其明年，渾邪王率其民降漢，而金城、河西西并南山至鹽澤空無匈奴。匈奴時有候者到，而希矣。其後二年，漢擊走單于於幕北。

是後天子數問騫大夏之屬。騫既失侯，因言曰：「臣居匈奴中，聞烏孫王號昆莫，昆莫之父，匈奴西邊小國也。匈奴攻殺其父，而昆莫生棄於野。烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之。單于怪以為神，而收長之。及壯，使將兵，數有功，單于復以其父之民予昆莫，令長守於西（城）［域］。昆莫收養其民，攻旁小邑，控弦數萬，習攻戰。單于死，昆莫乃率其眾遠徙，中立，不肯朝會匈奴。匈奴遣奇兵擊，不勝，以為神而遠之，因羈屬之，不大攻。今單于新困於漢，而故渾邪地空無人。蠻夷俗貪漢財物，今誠以此時而厚幣賂烏孫，招以益東，居故渾邪之地，與漢結昆弟，其勢宜聽，聽則是斷匈奴右臂也。既連烏孫，自其西大夏之屬皆可招來而為外臣。」天子以為然，拜騫為中郎將，將三百人，馬各二匹，牛羊以萬數，齎金幣帛直數千巨萬，多持節副使，道可使，使遺之他旁國。

騫既至烏孫，烏孫王昆莫見漢使如單于禮，騫大慚，知蠻夷貪，乃曰：「天子致賜，王不拜則還賜。」昆莫起拜賜，其他如故。騫諭使指曰：「烏孫能東居渾邪地，則漢遣翁主為昆莫夫人。」烏孫國分，王老，而遠漢，未知其大小，素服屬匈奴日久矣，且又近之，其大臣皆畏胡，不欲移徙，王不能專制。騫不得其要領。昆莫有十餘子，其中子曰大祿，彊，善將眾，將眾別居萬餘騎。大祿兄為太子，太子有子曰岑娶，而太子蚤死。臨死謂其父昆莫曰：「必以岑娶為太子，無令他人代之。」昆莫哀而許之，卒以岑娶為太子。大祿怒其不得代太子也，乃收其諸昆弟，將其眾畔，謀攻岑娶及昆莫。昆莫老，常恐大祿殺岑娶，予岑娶萬餘騎別居，而昆莫有萬餘騎自備，國眾分為三，而其大總取羈屬昆莫，昆莫亦以此不敢專約於騫。

Wusun, Anxi, and the Western Embassy Road

騫因分遣副使使大宛、康居、大月氏、大夏、安息、身毒、于窴、扜穼及諸旁國。烏孫發導譯送騫還，騫與烏孫遣使數十人，馬數十匹報謝，因令窺漢，知其廣大。

騫還到，拜為大行，列於九卿。歲餘，卒。

烏孫使既見漢人眾富厚，歸報其國，其國乃益重漢。其後歲餘，騫所遣使通大夏之屬者皆頗與其人俱來，於是西北國始通於漢矣。然張騫鑿空，其後使往者皆稱博望侯，以為質於外國，外國由此信之。

自博望侯騫死後，匈奴聞漢通烏孫，怒，欲擊之。及漢使烏孫，若出其南，抵大宛、大月氏相屬，烏孫乃恐，使使獻馬，願得尚漢女翁主為昆弟。天子問群臣議計，皆曰「必先納聘，然後乃遣女」。初，天子發書易，云「神馬當從西北來」。得烏孫馬好，名曰「天馬」。及得大宛汗血馬，益壯，更名烏孫馬曰「西極」，名大宛馬曰「天馬」云。而漢始筑令居以西，初置酒泉郡以通西北國。因益發使抵安息、奄蔡、黎軒、條枝、身毒國。而天子好宛馬，使者相望於道。諸使外國一輩大者數百，少者百餘人，人所齎操大放博望侯時。其后益習而衰少焉。漢率一歲中使多者十餘，少者五六輩，遠者八九歲，近者數歲而反。

是時漢既滅越，而蜀、西南夷皆震，請吏入朝。於是置益州、越巂、牂柯、沈黎、汶山郡，欲地接以前通大夏。乃遣使柏始昌、呂越人等歲十餘輩，出此初郡抵大夏，皆復閉昆明，為所殺，奪幣財，終莫能通至大夏焉。於是漢發三輔罪人，因巴蜀士數萬人，遣兩將軍郭昌、衛廣等往擊昆明之遮漢使者，斬首虜數萬人而去。其後遣使，昆明復為寇，竟莫能得通。而北道酒泉抵大夏，使者既多，而外國益厭漢幣，不貴其物。

自博望侯開外國道以尊貴，其後從吏卒皆爭上書言外國奇怪利害，求使。天子為其絕遠，非人所樂往，聽其言，予節，募吏民毋問所從來，為具備人眾遣之，以廣其道。來還不能毋侵盜幣物，及使失指，天子為其習之，輒覆案致重罪，以激怒令贖，復求使。使端無窮，而輕犯法。其吏卒亦輒復盛推外國所有，言大者予節，言小者為副，故妄言無行之徒皆爭效之。其使皆貧人子，私縣官齎物，欲賤市以私其利外國。外國亦厭漢使人人有言輕重，度漢兵遠不能至，而禁其食物以苦漢使。漢使乏絕積怨，至相攻擊。而樓蘭、姑師小國耳，當空道，攻劫漢使王恢等尤甚。而匈奴奇兵時時遮擊使西國者。使者爭遍言外國災害，皆有城邑，兵弱易擊。於是天子以故遣從驃侯破奴將屬國騎及郡兵數萬，至匈河水，欲以擊胡，胡皆去。其明年，擊姑師，破奴與輕騎七百餘先至，虜樓蘭王，遂破姑師。因舉兵威以困烏孫、大宛之屬。還，封破奴為浞野侯。王恢數使，為樓蘭所苦，言天子，天子發兵令恢佐破奴擊破之，封恢為浩侯。於是酒泉列亭鄣至玉門矣。

烏孫以千匹馬聘漢女，漢遣宗室女江都翁主往妻烏孫，烏孫王昆莫以為右夫人。匈奴亦遣女妻昆莫，昆莫以為左夫人。昆莫曰「我老」，乃令其孫岑娶妻翁主。烏孫多馬，其富人至有四五千匹馬。

初，漢使至安息，安息王令將二萬騎迎於東界。東界去王都數千里。行比至，過數十城，人民相屬甚多。漢使還，而後發使隨漢使來觀漢廣大，以大鳥卵及黎軒善眩人獻于漢。及宛西小國驩潛、大益，宛東姑師、扜穼、蘇薤之屬，皆隨漢使獻見天子。天子大悅。

而漢使窮河源，河源出于窴，其山多玉石，采來，天子案古圖書，名河所出山曰崑崙云。

是時上方數巡狩海上，乃悉從外國客，大都多人則過之，散財帛以賞賜，厚具以饒給之，以覽示漢富厚焉。於是大觳抵，出奇戲諸怪物，多聚觀者，行賞賜，酒池肉林，令外國客遍觀（名）［各］倉庫府藏之積，見漢之廣大，傾駭之。及加其眩者之工，而觳抵奇戲歲增變，甚盛益興，自此始。

西北外國使，更來更去。宛以西，皆自以遠，尚驕恣晏然，未可詘以禮羈縻而使也。自烏孫以西至安息，以近匈奴，匈奴困月氏也，匈奴使持單于一信，則國國傳送食，不敢留苦；及至漢使，非出幣帛不得食，不市畜不得騎用。所以然者，遠漢，而漢多財物，故必市乃得所欲，然以畏匈奴於漢使焉。宛左右以蒲陶為酒，富人藏酒至萬餘石，久者數十歲不敗。俗嗜酒，馬嗜苜蓿。漢使取其實來，於是天子始種苜蓿、蒲陶肥饒地。及天馬多，外國使來眾，則離宮別觀旁盡種蒲萄、苜蓿極望。自大宛以西至安息，國雖頗異言，然大同俗，相知言。其人皆深眼，多須髯，善市賈，爭分銖。俗貴女子，女子所言而丈夫乃決正。其地皆無絲漆，不知鑄錢器。及漢使亡卒降，教鑄作他兵器。得漢黃白金，輒以為器，不用為幣。

The War for the Heavenly Horses

而漢使者往既多，其少從率多進熟於天子，言曰：「宛有善馬在貳師城，匿不肯與漢使。」天子既好宛馬，聞之甘心，使壯士車令等持千金及金馬以請宛王貳師城善馬。宛國饒漢物，相與謀曰：「漢去我遠，而鹽水中數敗，出其北有胡寇，出其南乏水草。又且往往而絕邑，乏食者多。漢使數百人為輩來，而常乏食，死者過半，是安能致大軍乎？無柰我何。且貳師馬，宛寶馬也。」遂不肯予漢使。漢使怒，妄言，椎金馬而去。宛貴人怒曰：「漢使至輕我！」遣漢使去，令其東邊郁成遮攻殺漢使，取其財物。於是天子大怒。諸嘗使宛姚定漢等言宛兵弱，誠以漢兵不過三千人，彊弩射之，即盡虜破宛矣。天子已嘗使浞野侯攻樓蘭，以七百騎先至，虜其王，以定漢等言為然，而欲侯寵姬李氏，拜李廣利為貳師將軍，發屬國六千騎，及郡國惡少年數萬人，以往伐宛。期至貳師城取善馬，故號「貳師將軍」。趙始成為軍正，故浩侯王恢使導軍，而李哆為校尉，制軍事。是歲太初元年也。而關東蝗大起，蜚西至敦煌。

貳師將軍軍既西過鹽水，當道小國恐，各堅城守，不肯給食。攻之不能下。下者得食，不下者數日則去。比至郁成，士至者不過數千，皆饑罷。攻郁成，郁成大破之，所殺傷甚眾。貳師將軍與哆、始成等計：「至郁成尚不能舉，況至其王都乎？」引兵而還。往來二歲。還至敦煌，士不過什一二。使使上書言：「道遠多乏食；且士卒不患戰，患饑。人少，不足以拔宛。願且罷兵，益發而復往。」天子聞之，大怒，而使使遮玉門，曰軍有敢入者輒斬之！貳師恐，因留敦煌。

其夏，漢亡浞野之兵二萬餘於匈奴。公卿及議者皆願罷擊宛軍，專力攻胡。天子已業誅宛，宛小國而不能下，則大夏之屬輕漢，而宛善馬絕不來，烏孫、侖頭易苦漢使矣，為外國笑。乃案言伐宛尤不便者鄧光等，赦囚徒材官，益發惡少年及邊騎，歲餘而出敦煌者六萬人，負私從者不與。牛十萬，馬三萬餘匹，驢騾橐它以萬數。多齎糧，兵弩甚設，天下騷動，傳相奉伐宛，凡五十餘校尉。宛王城中無井，皆汲城外流水，於是乃遣水工徙其城下水空以空其城。益發戍甲卒十八萬，酒泉、張掖北，置居延、休屠以衛酒泉，而發天下七科適，及載糒給貳師。轉車人徒相連屬至敦煌。而拜習馬者二人為執驅校尉，備破宛擇取其善馬云。

於是貳師后復行，兵多，而所至小國莫不迎，出食給軍。至侖頭，侖頭不下，攻數日，屠之。自此而西，平行至宛城，漢兵到者三萬人。宛兵迎擊漢兵，漢兵射敗之，宛走入葆乘其城。貳師兵欲行攻郁成，恐留行而令宛益生詐，乃先至宛，決其水源，移之，則宛固已憂困。圍其城，攻之四十餘日，其外城壞，虜宛貴人勇將煎靡。宛大恐，走入中城。宛貴人相與謀曰：「漢所為攻宛，以王毋寡匿善馬而殺漢使。今殺王毋寡而出善馬，漢兵宜解；即不解，乃力戰而死，未晚也。」宛貴人皆以為然，共殺其王毋寡，持其頭遣貴人使貳師，約曰：「漢毋攻我。我盡出善馬，恣所取，而給漢軍食。即不聽，我盡殺善馬，而康居之救且至。至，我居內，康居居外，與漢軍戰。漢軍熟計之，何從？」是時康居候視漢兵，漢兵尚盛，不敢進。貳師與趙始成、李哆等計：「聞宛城中新得秦人，知穿井，而其內食尚多。所為來，誅首惡者毋寡。毋寡頭已至，如此而不許解兵，則堅守，而康居候漢罷而來救宛，破漢軍必矣。」軍吏皆以為然，許宛之約。宛乃出其善馬，令漢自擇之，而多出食食給漢軍。漢軍取其善馬數十匹。中馬以下牡牝三千餘匹，而立宛貴人之故待遇漢使善者名昧蔡以為宛王，與盟而罷兵。終不得入中城。乃罷而引歸。

初，貳師起敦煌西，以為人多，道上國不能食，乃分為數軍，從南北道。校尉王申生、故鴻臚壺充國等千餘人，別到郁成。郁成城守，不肯給食其軍。王申生去大軍二百里，（偵）［偩］而輕之，責郁成。郁成食不肯出，窺知申生軍日少，晨用三千人攻，戮殺申生等，軍破，數人脫亡，走貳師。貳師令搜粟都尉上官桀往攻破郁成。郁成王亡走康居，桀追至康居。康居聞漢已破宛，乃出郁成王予桀，桀令四騎士縛守詣大將軍。四人相謂曰：「郁成王漢國所毒，今生將去，卒失大事。」欲殺，莫敢先擊。上邽騎士趙弟最少，拔劍擊之，斬郁成王，齎頭。弟、桀等逐及大將軍。

初，貳師后行，天子使使告烏孫，大發兵并力擊宛。烏孫發二千騎往，持兩端，不肯前。貳師將軍之東，諸所過小國聞宛破，皆使其子弟從軍入獻，見天子，因以為質焉。貳師之伐宛也，而軍正趙始成力戰，功最多；及上官桀敢深入，李哆為謀計，軍入玉門者萬餘人，軍馬千餘匹。貳師后行，軍非乏食，戰死不能多，而將吏貪，多不愛士卒，侵牟之，以此物故眾。天子為萬里而伐宛，不錄過，封廣利為海西侯。又封身斬郁成王者騎士趙弟為新畤侯。軍正趙始成為光祿大夫，上官桀為少府，李哆為上黨太守。軍官吏為九卿者三人，諸侯相、郡守、二千石者百餘人，千石以下千餘人。奮行者官過其望，以適過行者皆絀其勞。士卒賜直四萬金。伐宛再反，凡四歲而得罷焉。

漢已伐宛，立昧蔡為宛王而去。歲餘，宛貴人以為昧蔡善諛，使我國遇屠，乃相與殺昧蔡，立毋寡昆弟曰蟬封為宛王，而遣其子入質於漢。漢因使使賂賜以鎮撫之。

而漢發使十餘輩至宛西諸外國，求奇物，因風覽以伐宛之威德。而敦煌置酒泉都尉；西至鹽水，往往有亭。而侖頭有田卒數百人，因置使者護田積粟，以給使外國者。

太史公曰：《禹本紀》言「河出崑崙。崑崙其高二千五百餘里，日月所相避隱為光明也。其上有醴泉、瑤池」。今自張騫使大夏之後也，窮河源，惡睹本紀所謂崑崙者乎？故言九州山川，《尚書》近之矣。至《禹本紀》、《山海經》所有怪物，余不敢言之也。

Source Colophon

The source text was inspected from Chinese Text Project, Sima Qian, Shiji, Dawan Liezhuan, using the on-disk source capture and the companion archival source-text page for this project. The English rendering above presents the unified source chapter in English.

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