Good Works Translation from Volume 83

This Good Works Translation renders the Western Regions biography of Sui Shu volume 83 from Classical Chinese into English.

For the Scythian shelf, the chapter is eastern frontier evidence rather than a direct identity text. It records Sui contact with Tuyuhun, Dangxiang, Gaochang, Yanqi, Kucha, Khotan, the Kang-linked Zhaowu states, Tokharistan, the Hephthalites, Persia, and the historian's warning about the cost of distant expansion.

The Classical Chinese source text is printed below the translation.

Translation

Opening Frame

When the Han first opened the Western Regions, there were thirty-six states. Later they divided and set up fifty-five kings. A commandant and a protector-general were established to soothe and receive them. When Wang Mang usurped the throne, the Western Regions were cut off. By the Later Han, Ban Chao's communications reached more than fifty states. Westward they extended to the Western Sea; from east to west the distance was forty thousand li. All came to court and offered tribute, and a protector-general and commandant were again established to control them together. After that the connection was sometimes cut off and sometimes reopened. The Han court considered it wearying and harmful to China, and its offices were now abolished, now set up again. After the Wei and Jin, the states swallowed and destroyed one another, and their affairs cannot be described in detail.

In the time of Emperor Yang, the attending censor Wei Jie and the secretary of the metropolitan commandant Du Xingman were sent as envoys to the western foreign states. At Jibin they obtained an agate cup; at Rajagriha they obtained Buddhist scriptures; at the state of Shi they obtained ten dancing girls, lion skins, and fire-rat hair, and returned. The emperor again ordered Pei Ju, Duke of Wenxi, to travel between Wuwei and Zhangye in order to draw them in. There were forty-four states with rulers. Pei Ju used their envoys when they entered court, tempting them with rich profit and causing them in turn to urge one another. In the Daye years more than thirty states came to court together. The emperor then established a commandant of the Western Regions to receive them. Soon China fell into great disorder, and tribute ceased. Much of the record was lost. The present account preserves twenty states.

Tuyuhun

The Tuyuhun were originally descended from Tuyuhun, son of Shegui of Tuhe, a Xianbei man from Liaoxi. At first Shegui had two sons. The elder by a concubine was called Tuyuhun; the younger was called Ruoluogui. When Shegui died, Ruoluogui succeeded to command the tribes. This was the Murong house. Tuyuhun and Ruoluogui did not agree, so Tuyuhun crossed Long westward and settled south of Gansong and west of the Tao River, reaching southward to Bailan Mountain. The land extended several thousand li, and afterward Tuyuhun became the name of the state.

Between the Wei and Zhou, their ruler first took the title qaghan. The capital was Fusi city, fifteen li west of Qinghai. They had walled towns, but did not live in them; they followed water and pasture. Their offices included kings and dukes, pushe, shangshu, langzhong, and generals. The ruler wore black as a cap. His wife wore golden flowers. Their weapons, utensils, and clothing were roughly like those of China. Their kings, dukes, and nobles often wore veiled caps. The women wore skirts and jackets, braided their hair, and adorned it with pearls and shells. The state had no regular tax. Those who killed a person or stole a horse were put to death; for other offenses goods were levied to redeem the crime. Their customs were quite like those of the Turks. In mourning they had prescribed garments, and removed them after burial. By nature they were all greedy and harsh. They had barley, millet, and beans.

Qinghai measured more than a thousand li around. In it was a small mountain. According to their custom, in winter they released mares onto it, saying that they would obtain dragon seed. The Tuyuhun once obtained Persian stallions and released them into the lake; from this were born blue-gray colts able to travel a thousand li in a day. For this reason they were then called the Qinghai blue-gray horses. They had many yaks and were rich in copper, iron, and cinnabar. Their land included Shanshan and Qiemo. To the northwest was a flowing desert several hundred li wide. In summer a hot wind injured and killed travelers. When the wind was about to arrive, old camels knew beforehand. They stretched out their necks and cried, gathered together, and buried their mouths and noses in the sand. When people saw this, they knew what was coming and covered their mouths and noses with felt to avoid the harm.

Their ruler Lukua repeatedly raided the frontier in Zhou times, and at the beginning of Kaihuang he attacked Hongzhou with troops. Gaozu considered Hongzhou broad in territory and obstinate in population, and abolished it for that reason. He sent the supreme pillar of state Yuan Xie with tens of thousands of infantry and cavalry to strike Tuyuhun. The enemy raised all the troops in the state; from Mantou to Shudun armored cavalry continued without break. Their appointed Hexi commander-in-chief, Zhonglifang King of Dingcheng, and their crown prince Kebohan came out one after another to resist in battle. Yuan Xie repeatedly defeated them and captured and beheaded a great many. Lukua was greatly afraid and fled far away with his personal troops. Thirteen of their titled kings each led their tribes and surrendered. The emperor considered that Yizipou, their King of Gaoning, had long had the hearts of the people, appointed him general-in-chief, enfeoffed him as King of Henan, and used him to command the surrendered people. The other offices and rewards differed by rank.

Before long, Tuyuhun again came to raid the frontier. Pi Zixin, governor of Xuzhou, sent out troops to resist them in battle, was defeated by the enemy, and died. Liang Yuan, commander-in-chief of Wenzhou, struck them with picked troops, beheaded more than a thousand, and they ran back. Soon they entered Kouzhou as raiders, and the provincial troops struck and drove them off.

Lukua reigned for a hundred years. Many times, because of joy or anger, he deposed his crown prince and killed him. Later the crown prince feared that he would be deposed and shamed, and therefore plotted to seize Lukua and surrender, requesting troops from the frontier officials. Hong, King of Hejian and commander-in-chief of Qinzhou, requested permission to lead troops to respond, but the emperor did not allow it. The crown prince's plot was leaked, and he was killed by his father. Lukua then made his younger son He, the Wei King, crown prince. Du Can, governor of Diezhou, requested permission to use the breach as an occasion to punish them, but the emperor again did not allow it.

In the sixth year, He, the Wei King, again feared that his father would kill him. He plotted to lead fifteen thousand tribal households into the empire and sent an envoy to the palace gate, requesting troops to receive him. The emperor said to his attendants: "The customs of the Hun enemy are especially different from human relations. The father is not kind, and the son is not filial. I instruct people by virtue. How could I complete their wicked rebellion?" Then he said to the envoy: "I received the mandate from Heaven and nurture the four seas, hoping that all living people will face one another with humanity and righteousness. How much more should father and son, whose bond is heavenly nature, not love one another? The Tuyuhun ruler is the father of the Wei King, and the Wei King is the crown prince of the Tuyuhun ruler. If the father is wrong, the son must remonstrate openly. If he remonstrates and is not obeyed, he should have close ministers, relatives, and people inside and outside admonish him indirectly. If that still cannot be done, he should speak with tears. People all have feeling and must be moved to understanding. He must not secretly plot unlawfully and accept the name of being unfilial. Under the broad Heaven all are my subjects. Each doing good accords with my heart. Since the Wei King has good intent and wishes to come and entrust himself to me, I will only teach him the law of being a minister and a son. I cannot send troops far away to help him do wicked things." The Wei King then stopped.

In the eighth year, their titled king Tuoba Mumi requested permission to submit with more than a thousand families. The emperor said: "Under the broad Heaven all are called my subjects. Though they are wild and distant and do not yet know moral instruction, my nurturing of them all takes humanity and filial piety as its root. The Hun enemy is dark and mad; wives and children are afraid and all think of submitting in order to save themselves from danger. Yet a wife betraying her husband and a son turning his back on his father cannot be accepted. Still, their original intent is only to avoid death. If now I send them back, that would again be inhumane. If they have further sincere intent, they should only be soothed and allowed to extricate themselves; there is no need to send troops to receive them. If his brother-in-law and nephew wish to come, let them follow their own intent; do not trouble to urge them."

That year Yizipou, King of Henan, died. Gaozu ordered his younger brother Shugui to inherit the command of his people. After the pacification of Chen, Lukua was greatly afraid, fled to guard difficult places, and did not dare make raids.

In the eleventh year, Lukua died and his son Fu came to the throne. He sent his elder brother's son Wusu to present a memorial acknowledging vassalage and offering local products, and requested that his daughter be placed in the imperial rear palace. The emperor said to the Prince of Teng: "This is not perfect sincerity, only an urgent calculation." Then he said to Wusu: "I know that the Hun ruler wishes his daughter to serve me. If I accept the request, other states will hear of it and will all imitate him. To allow one and bar another is called unfair. If all are allowed, that is no good law. My feeling is to preserve and nurture, wishing each to fulfill its nature. How could I collect their daughters to fill the rear palace?" In the end he did not allow it. In the twelfth year he sent Yuwen Bi, minister of punishments, to soothe them. In the sixteenth year he gave Princess Guanghua in marriage to Fu. Fu sent a memorial calling the princess the Heavenly Queen, but the emperor did not allow it.

The next year, the state fell into great disorder. The people killed Fu and set up his younger brother Fuyun as ruler. They sent envoys to report the deposition and enthronement, apologized for acting on their own authority, and requested that according to their custom they might still marry a princess. The emperor followed this. From then on tribute came yearly, but they often inquired into the affairs of the state, and the emperor greatly disliked it.

When Emperor Yang came to the throne, Fuyun sent his son Shun to court. At that time the Tiele violated the frontier. The emperor sent the general Feng Xiaoci out through Dunhuang to resist them, but Xiaoci fought unsuccessfully. The Tiele sent envoys to apologize and request surrender. The emperor sent Pei Ju, attendant gentleman of the yellow gate, to soothe them, and had him hint that they should strike Tuyuhun to show their service. The Tiele agreed, raised troops, attacked Tuyuhun, and badly defeated them. Fuyun fled east and held the border of Xiping. The emperor then ordered Xiong, Prince of Guan, to go out by Jiaohe, and Yuwen Shu, Duke of Xu, to go out by Xiping and cover him. They greatly defeated his people. Fuyun fled, and more than a hundred thousand persons from his tribes came in surrender. There were more than three hundred thousand head of the six kinds of livestock. Yuwen Shu pursued him urgently. Fuyun was afraid and fled south among the mountains and valleys.

Their old territory was entirely empty. From Xiping and Linqiang city westward to Qiemo, south of Qilian and north of Snow Mountain, four thousand li east-west and two thousand li north-south, all became Sui possession. Commanderies, counties, garrisons, and guards were set up, and light offenders from all under Heaven were exiled to live there. Shun was therefore detained and not sent back. Fuyun had nothing by which to maintain himself and led several thousand cavalry to live as guests among the Dangxiang. The emperor made Shun ruler and sent him out through the Jade Gate to command the remaining people, appointing Niluo Zhou, the Great Treasure King, to assist him. When they reached Xiping, his subordinates killed Luo Zhou; Shun could not enter and returned. At the end of Daye, all under Heaven fell into disorder. Fuyun recovered his old territory and repeatedly raided west of the Yellow River. The commanderies and counties could not resist him.

Dangxiang

The Dangxiang Qiang were descendants of the Sanmiao. Among their kinds were the Dangchang and Bailang, all of whom called themselves macaque stock. To the east they touched Lintao and Xiping; to the west they held back the yabghu. Their land extended several thousand li north and south, and they dwelt among mountains and valleys. Each surname separately made a tribe. The large ones had more than five thousand cavalry; the small ones more than a thousand. They wove yak tails and sheep hair to make dwellings. They wore fur and coarse cloth and draped felt as their upper adornment. Their custom honored martial strength. They had no law codes. Each carried on his own livelihood. When there was battle, they assembled together. They had no labor service or taxes and did not visit one another.

They raised yaks, sheep, and pigs for food and did not know sowing or reaping. Their customs in sexual and levirate relations were the worst among the foreign peoples. They had no writing, but watched plants and trees to keep the seasons. Once every three years they held an assembly and killed cattle and sheep to sacrifice to Heaven. When a person over eighty died, they considered it a good end, and relatives did not weep. When someone died young, they called it a great wrong and all grieved and wept. They had lutes and transverse pipes and beat jars for rhythm.

Between the Wei and Zhou, they often disturbed the frontier. When Gaozu was regent and the Central Plain had many troubles, they used the occasion to plunder greatly. After Liang Rui, Duke of Jiang, had pacified Wang Qian, he requested permission to use the returning army to punish them, but Gaozu did not allow it. In the fourth Kaihuang year more than a thousand families submitted. In the fifth year, Tuoba Ningcong and others each led their people to Xuzhou and attached themselves to the empire. They were appointed generals-in-chief, and their subordinates received offices by rank. In the sixteenth year they again raided Huizhou. An edict sent Longxi troops to punish them, and their people were greatly defeated. Again they came together to request surrender, willing to become subjects, and sent sons and younger brothers to court to apologize for the offense. Gaozu said to them: "Return and tell your fathers and elder brothers that human life must have fixed dwelling, in order to nourish the old and raise the young. Yet you now return and now run away. Are you not ashamed before your villages?" From this time tribute never ceased.

Gaochang

The state of Gaochang was the former court of the king of Nearer Jushi in Han times, thirteen days' journey from Dunhuang. Its territory was three hundred li east-west and five hundred li north-south, with great mountains on all four sides. In the past, when Emperor Wu of Han sent soldiers west to campaign, the army was exhausted and worn down. Those who were especially distressed remained there. The land had the Gaochang fort of Han times, and so this became the state's name.

At first the Rouran set Kan Bozhou up as king of Gaochang. When Bozhou died, his son Yicheng came to the throne, but was killed by his elder cousin Shougui. Shougui set himself up as king of Gaochang, and was then killed by Afuzhiluo of the Gaoche. Zhang Mengming, a man of Dunhuang, was made ruler. Mengming was killed by the people of the state, who then made Ma Ru king, with Gong Gu and Qu Jia as left and right senior secretaries. Ma Ru again communicated with Later Wei by envoys and requested internal attachment. The internally attached people were all attached to their soil and did not wish to move east. Together they killed Ma Ru and set up Jia as king. Jia's courtesy name was Lingfeng; he was a man of Yuzhong in Jincheng. Once installed, he again became subject to Rouran. When the Rouran ruler was killed by the Gaoche, Jia became subject to Gaoche. When Yanqi was destroyed by the Hephthalites, its people could not govern themselves and requested a ruler from Jia. Jia sent his second son to be king of Yanqi. From this time Gaochang first became great and was increasingly obeyed by the people of the state. When Jia died, his son Jian came to the throne.

The capital city measured 1,840 paces around. In the sitting chamber they painted an image of Duke Ai of Lu asking Confucius about government. There were eighteen cities in the state. The offices included one lingyin, then two dukes, then left and right guards, then eight senior secretaries, then five generals, then eight sima, then attendants, clerks, registrars, functionaries, and office managers. Great matters were decided by the king; small matters were judged by the elder son and the dukes. Written records were not established. Men wore Hu clothing. Women wore skirts and jackets and made a hair-knot on the head. Their customs and government orders were roughly like those of China.

The land had much stony desert. The climate was warm. Grain and wheat ripened twice. It was good for silkworms and had many of the five fruits. There was a plant called sheep-thorn; on it grew honey, and the taste was very fine. It produced red salt like cinnabar and white salt like jade. There was much grape wine. Their custom served the spirits of Heaven and also believed in the Buddha's law. The sheep and horses of the state were pastured in hidden places in order to avoid foreign raiders; unless a man was noble, he did not know where they were. To the north was Red Stone Mountain. Seventy li north of that mountain was Tanhan Mountain, where there was accumulated snow in summer. North of this mountain was the boundary of the Tiele.

From Wuwei northwestward there was a shortcut crossing more than a thousand li of sandy and stony desert. On all four sides it was vast and indistinct, without paths or tracks. Those who wished to go looked for human and animal bones and followed them. On the road one sometimes heard sounds of singing and weeping. Travelers who sought them mostly became lost and died. This was because of demons and mountain spirits. For this reason merchants going back and forth mostly took the Yiwu road.

In the tenth Kaihuang year, the Turks destroyed four of Gaochang's cities, and two thousand people came and submitted to China. Jian died, and his son Boya came to the throne. Boya's grandmother had originally been the daughter of a Turkish qaghan. When his father died, the Turks ordered him to follow their custom. Boya refused for a long time. The Turks pressed him, and only under compulsion did he comply.

When Emperor Yang succeeded, he drew in the foreign states. In the fourth Daye year, Gaochang sent envoys with tribute, and the emperor treated the envoys very generously. The next year, Boya came to court. He then followed the campaign against Goguryeo. On his return he married Princess Huarong, a woman of the imperial clan. In the winter of the eighth year he returned to his foreign state and issued an order within the country: "In ordering a state and loving the people, preservation is prized; in pacifying a country and arranging government, complete rescue is greatest. Formerly, because the state lay on the remote frontier and its territory bordered fierce barbarians, we had no blame for sharing men's ways with them and wearing the hair loose and the lapel to the left. Now the Great Sui rules and commands, the universe is unified, and all under Heaven and within the lands turn toward it alike. Since I have bathed in the harmonious wind, I hope to equal the great transformation. All common people and above should untie their braids and cut away their barbarian lapels."

When the emperor heard this, he thought it very good and issued an edict: "To make virtue visible and praise goodness is what sages and wise men exalt; to reveal sincerity and complete what is fine are rules left by the canons and counsels. Boya, grand master for splendid happiness, Duke of Bi, and King of Gaochang, has understanding far-reaching in measure and a disposition gentle and generous. His red sincerity has long been evident, and his bright integrity is proclaimed afar. Originally he came from the Chinese peoples, though his line has lasted in the western lands. Formerly, because of many troubles, he sank and was pressed among the Xunrong; when the number of his fortune was exhausted, the cap was ruined and he was cut into Hu clothing. Since our imperial Sui pacified and unified the universe, transformation has covered the nine enclosures and virtue has reached the four borders. Boya crossed the desert and forgot its obstacles, bringing tribute to court. He observed the ceremonial appearance of the old statutes and admired the flourishing norms of dignity and bearing. Thus he takes up the hat strings and unties the braids, cuts the lapels and trails the skirt, changes from foreign ways and follows Xia. The righteousness shines in former records. He may be granted the implements of clothing and cap, and the models for manufacture shall be distributed. Envoys shall also be sent to supervise and escort them. Dressed in patterned robes, he will again see the beauty of carriage and clothing; abandoning that felt and haircloth, he will return to being a state of caps and belts."

Yet Boya had earlier become subject to the Tiele, and the Tiele constantly sent a high minister to Gaochang. When merchant Hu came and went, he taxed them and sent the proceeds to the Tiele. Although he had this order to please China, in the end he feared the Tiele and did not dare change. From then on he yearly sent envoys to offer local products.

Kang

The state of Kang was descended from Kangju. They migrated without constancy and did not always remain in the old land, yet from Han times onward the succession had not been cut off. The king's original surname was Wen, and he was a Yuezhi man. Formerly they lived in Zhaowu city north of the Qilian Mountains. Because they were destroyed by the Xiongnu, they crossed west over the Congling and there possessed their state. The collateral branches were each divided and made kings, and for this reason the states to the left and right of Kang all took Zhaowu as their surname, showing that they did not forget their root.

The king's personal name was Daishibi. As a man he was generous and kind, and he greatly won the hearts of the people. His wife was the daughter of Tardu Qaghan of the Turks. He made his capital at Aludi city on the Sabao River. There were many people living in the city. Three great ministers together managed the affairs of the state. The king tied up his hair, wore a golden flower cap set with seven treasures, and dressed in silk, gauze, brocade, embroidery, and white folded cloth. His wife had a hair-knot covered with a black scarf. The men cut their hair and wore brocade robes. It was called a strong state, and many states of the Western Regions submitted to it. The states of Mi, Shi, Cao, He, An, Lesser An, Nasebo, Wunahu, and Mu all attached themselves to it.

They had Hu law, placed in a fire temple; when deciding punishment, they took it out and judged by it. For the gravest crimes the family was exterminated; for the next gravest the offender was put to death; thieves had their feet cut off. The people all had deep eyes, high noses, and many beards. They were good at trade, and the transactions of the foreign peoples mostly gathered in their state. They had large and small drums, lutes, five-stringed instruments, harps, and flutes. Marriage and mourning customs were the same as among the Turks. The state set up an ancestral temple and sacrificed to it in the sixth month; all the states came to assist the sacrifice. Their custom honored the Buddha, and they used Hu writing. The climate was warm and suitable for the five grains. They diligently cultivated gardens and vegetables; trees grew luxuriantly. The land produced horses, camels, mules, donkeys, humped cattle, gold, naosha, incense, asana incense, sese stones, deer skin, carpets, brocade, and folded cloth. There was much grape wine; wealthy houses might have as much as a thousand shi, and it did not spoil after successive years. In the Daye period they first sent envoys to offer local products, and afterward the contact ceased.

An

The state of An was the Anxi state of Han times. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and he was of the same clan as the king of Kang. His personal name was Shelideng. His wife was the daughter of the king of Kang. His capital was south of the Nami River. The city had five rings, surrounded by flowing water. The palace halls all had flat roofs. The king sat on a golden camel seat seven or eight feet high. Whenever he heard government, he faced his wife, and three great ministers judged and ordered state affairs. The customs were the same as those of Kang. Only in marrying their sisters and in mothers and sons alternating with one another like beasts did they differ. After Emperor Yang came to the throne, he sent Du Xingman, secretary of the metropolitan commandant, as envoy to the Western Regions. He reached this state and returned with five-colored salt. More than a hundred li west of the state was the state of Bi, with about a thousand families. It had no ruler, and An governed it. In the fifth Daye year, An sent envoys with tribute, and afterward the contact ceased.

Shi

The state of Shi lay on the Yashan River. Its capital city was more than ten li square. The king's surname was Shi, and his personal name was Nie. Southeast of the state city they built a house and placed a seat inside. On the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month, they took the remaining burned bones of the king's father and mother, put them in a golden urn, placed it on a couch, and walked around it, scattering flowers, incense, and mixed fruits. The king led his ministers and subordinates in sacrifice. When the rite ended, the king and his wife went out to a separate tent, and the ministers and subordinates sat in order, feasted, and ended the gathering.

The land had millet and wheat and many good horses. Its custom was good at war. It once divided its allegiance from the Turks, and Shekui Qaghan raised troops and destroyed it, ordering Teqin Dianzhi to manage the affairs of the state. It was six hundred li south of Bohan and six thousand li southeast of Guazhou. Dianzhi sent envoys to court with tribute in the fifth Daye year, and after that they did not come again.

Women's State

The Women's State was south of the Congling. In that state women had been kings for generations. The king's surname was Supi, and her personal name was Mojie. She had been on the throne for twenty years. The husband of the woman king was titled Jinju and did not know government. The men inside the state made warfare their sole business. They built a city on a mountain, five or six li square, and had ten thousand households. The king lived in a nine-story tower, with several hundred serving women. Once every five days she heard court. There was also a younger woman king, who shared knowledge of the government.

Their custom valued women and slighted men, but by nature they were not jealous. Both men and women painted their faces in colors; in a single day they might change the coloring several times. Everyone wore the hair loose and used leather for shoes. Taxes were irregular. The climate was very cold, and they lived by shooting and hunting. The land produced brass, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and Shu horses. It had especially much salt. They constantly took salt toward India for trade, and the profit was severalfold. They also repeatedly went to war with India and the Dangxiang.

When their woman king died, the people of the state collected large amounts of gold and money and sought two worthy women from the dead woman's clan. One became the woman king, the second the lesser king. When a noble died, they stripped off the skin, mixed gold dust with the bones and flesh, placed it in a bottle, and buried it. After a year, they put the skin into an iron vessel and buried it. Their custom served the asura spirit. They also had a tree spirit. At the beginning of the year they sacrificed a human being to it, or sometimes used a macaque. When the sacrifice was finished, they entered the mountains and prayed. A bird like a female pheasant came and perched on the palm. They opened its belly and looked inside. If there was millet, the year would be abundant; if there was sand or stone, there would be disaster. They called this bird divination. In the sixth Kaihuang year they sent envoys to court with tribute, and afterward the contact ceased.

Yanqi

The state of Yanqi had its capital seventy li south of White Mountain. It was an old state of Han times. The king's surname was Long, and his personal name was Tuqi. The capital city was two li square. Inside the state there were nine cities and more than a thousand fighting men. The state had no fixed order. Its custom honored Buddhist books and resembled the Brahmans. Marriage rites were like those of China. The dead were burned, and mourning was held for seven days. The men cut their hair. There was profit from fish, salt, cattails, and reeds. Eastward to Gaochang was nine hundred li; westward to Kucha was nine hundred li. Both routes crossed sandy and stony desert. Southeastward to Guazhou was 2,200 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Kucha

The state of Kucha had its capital 170 li south of White Mountain. It was an old state of Han times. The king's surname was Bai, and his personal name was Sunidie. The capital city was six li square. There were several thousand fighting men. According to their custom, a murderer was put to death; bandits had one arm cut off and one foot amputated. Their customs were the same as those of Yanqi. The king tied a colored band around his head and let it hang down behind; he sat on a golden lion seat. The soil had much rice, millet, beans, and wheat, and was rich in copper, iron, lead, deer skin, carpets, naosha, salt-green, orpiment, Hu powder, Anxi incense, good horses, and humped cattle. Eastward to Yanqi was nine hundred li; southward to Khotan was 1,400 li; westward to Shule was 1,500 li; northwestward to the Turkish court was more than six hundred li; southeastward to Guazhou was 3,100 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Shule

The state of Shule had its capital more than a hundred li south of White Mountain. It was an old state of Han times. The king's personal name was Amijue. His hands and feet each had six fingers or toes. If a child was born without six fingers and toes, it was not raised. The capital city was five li square. Inside the state there were twelve large cities and several tens of small cities, with two thousand fighting men. The king wore a golden lion crown. The soil had much rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and orpiment. Each year they regularly supplied these to the Turks. To the south was the Yellow River; to the west it touched the Congling. Eastward to Kucha was 1,500 li; westward to Bohan was a thousand li; southward to Zhujubo was eight or nine hundred li; northeastward to the Turkish court was more than a thousand li; southeastward to Guazhou was 4,600 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Khotan

The state of Khotan had its capital more than two hundred li north of the Congling. The king's surname was Wang, and his personal name was Beishibilian. The capital city was eight or nine li square. In the state there were five large cities and several tens of small cities, with several thousand fighting men. Their custom honored the Buddha, and there were especially many monks and nuns. The king often kept fasts and precepts. Fifty li south of the city was Zanmo Monastery, said to have been made by the arhat monk Piluzhan. On a stone were the barefoot traces of a pratyekabuddha. Five hundred li west of Khotan was Bimo Monastery, said to be the place where Laozi converted the Hu and became Buddha.

Their customs had no ritual propriety or righteousness. There was much thieving and licentious indulgence. The king wore a brocade cap and a golden rat crown; his wife wore golden flowers. The king did not allow people to see his hair. The custom said that if the king's hair were seen, the year would surely be poor. The soil had much hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and the five fruits; there were many gardens and groves, and the mountains had fine jade. Eastward to Shanshan was 1,500 li; southward to the Women's State was 3,000 li; westward to Zhujubo was a thousand li; northward to Kucha was 1,400 li; northeastward to Guazhou was 2,800 li. In the Daye period they frequently sent envoys to court with tribute.

Bohan

The state of Bohan had its capital more than five hundred li west of the Congling. It was the ancient state of Qusou. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and his personal name was Aliqi. The capital city was four li square. There were several thousand fighting men. The king sat on a golden ram couch, and his wife wore golden flowers. The custom had much cinnabar, gold, and iron. Eastward to Shule was a thousand li; westward to Suduishana was five hundred li; northwestward to Shi was five hundred li; northeastward to the Turkish court was more than two thousand li; eastward to Guazhou was 5,500 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Tokharistan

The state of Tokharistan had its capital five hundred li west of the Congling and lived intermixed with the Hephthalites. The capital city was two li square. It had a hundred thousand fighting men, all trained in war. Its custom honored the Buddha. Brothers shared one wife and slept with her in turn. Whenever one man entered the room, he hung his clothing outside the door as a sign. A child born from the wife belonged to the eldest brother. In a mountain cave there was a divine horse. Each year mares were pastured at the cave, and they always bore famous colts. Southward to Cao was 1,700 li; eastward to Guazhou was 5,800 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys to court with tribute.

Hephthalites

The Hephthalite state had its capital more than two hundred li south of the Wuhu River. They were of the stock of the Great Yuezhi. They had five or six thousand fighting men. Their custom was good at war. Earlier, when the state was in disorder, the Turks sent Tongshe, personal name Jieqiang, to lead the state. The capital city was more than ten li square. There were many monasteries and stupas, all adorned with gold. Brothers shared one wife. A woman with one husband wore a one-horned cap; when a husband had many brothers, she made the horns according to their number. Southward to Cao was 1,500 li; eastward to Guazhou was 6,500 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Mi

The state of Mi had its capital west of the Nami River, in the old land of Kangju. It had no king. Its city lord's surname was Zhaowu; he was a collateral branch of the king of Kang. His personal name was Bizhuo. The capital city was two li square. There were several hundred fighting men. Northwestward to Kang was a hundred li; eastward to Suduishana was five hundred li; southwestward to Shi was two hundred li; eastward to Guazhou was 6,400 li. In the Daye period they frequently offered local products.

Shi

The state of Shi had its capital ten li south of the Dumo River, in the old land of Kangju. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and his personal name was Dizhe. He too was a collateral branch of the king of Kang. The capital city was two li square. There were more than a thousand fighting men. Its customs were the same as those of Kang. Northward to Kang was 240 li; southward to Tokharistan was five hundred li; westward to Nasebo was two hundred li; northeastward to Mi was two hundred li; eastward to Guazhou was 6,500 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Cao

The state of Cao had its capital several li south of the Nami River, and was formerly land of Kangju. The state had no ruler. The king of Kang ordered his son Wujian to lead it. The capital city was three li square. There were more than a thousand fighting men. Within the state was the god Dexi. All states east from the Western Sea revered and served him. The god had a golden man. The golden bowl was one zhang and five chi wide, and its height was proportionate. Every day five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep were sacrificed to him; a thousand people always ate and could not finish the food. Southeastward to Kang was a hundred li; westward to He was 150 li; eastward to Guazhou was 6,600 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

He

The state of He had its capital several li south of the Nami River, and was formerly land of Kangju. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and he too belonged to the kindred of the king of Kang. His personal name was Dun. The capital city was two li square. There were a thousand fighting men. The king sat on a golden ram seat. Eastward to Cao was 150 li; westward to Lesser An was three hundred li; eastward to Guazhou was 6,750 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Wunahu

The state of Wunahu had its capital west of the Wuhu River, in the old land of Anxi. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and he too was of Kang stock. His personal name was Foshi. The capital city was two li square. There were several hundred fighting men. The king sat on a golden ram seat. Northeastward to An was four hundred li; northwestward to Mu was more than two hundred li; eastward to Guazhou was 7,500 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Mu

The state of Mu had its capital west of the Wuhu River. It too was old Anxi territory and neighbored Wunahu. The king's surname was Zhaowu; he too was of the same kind as the king of Kang. His personal name was Alanmi. The capital city was three li square, and there were two thousand fighting men. Northeastward to An was five hundred li; eastward to Wunahu was more than two hundred li; westward to Persia was more than four thousand li; eastward to Guazhou was 7,700 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Persia

The state of Persia had its capital west of the Daxi River at Sulin city, which was the old land of Tiaozhi. The king's personal name was Kusahe. The capital city was more than ten li square. There were more than twenty thousand fighting men, who rode elephants in battle. The state had no death penalty. Some offenders had hands cut off or feet amputated and family property confiscated; some had their beards shaved off; some were bound with a board at the neck as a mark of difference. People more than three years old paid a head tax of four cash. They married their sisters. When people died, the corpse was abandoned on a mountain, and mourning was held for a month.

The king wore a golden flower crown and sat on a golden lion seat. He applied gold dust to his beard as an ornament. He wore a brocade robe and added strings of jewels over it. The soil produced good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, large bird eggs, pearls, glass, amber, coral, lapis lazuli, agate, crystal, sese stones, huluojie, lvteng, fire-brilliance stones, diamond, gold, silver, brass, copper, fine iron, tin, brocade, folded cloth, fine cloth, carpets and rugs, huona cloth, yuenuo cloth, sandalwood, gold-thread woven fabrics, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, frankincense, turmeric, storax, qingmu, and various aromatics, as well as pepper, long pepper, rock honey, half-honey, thousand-year dates, aconite, myrobalan, gallnuts, salt-green, and orpiment. The Turks could not reach the state, but also held it in loose restraint. Persia sent envoys with tribute each time. Westward to the sea was several hundred li; eastward to Mu was more than four thousand li; northwestward to Fulin was 4,500 li; eastward to Guazhou was 11,700 li. Emperor Yang sent Li Yu, a cloud-cavalry commandant, as envoy to communicate with Persia. Soon Persia sent envoys following Li Yu to offer local products.

Cao

The state of Cao was north of the Congling and was the Jibin state of Han times. The king's surname was Zhaowu, and his personal name was Shunda. He belonged to the kin of the king of Kang. The capital city was four li square. There were more than ten thousand fighting men. The laws of the state were strict and orderly; murderers and thieves were all put to death. Its custom had unregulated cults. In the Congling mountains there was a god named Shuntian whose ritual apparatus was extremely splendid. Gold and silver plates made the building, and silver made the floor. More than a thousand people performed rites there each day. Before the shrine was a fish spine bone. Its holes were hollow through, and horsemen rode in and out through them. The king of the state wore a golden fish-head crown and sat on a golden horse seat. The soil had much rice, millet, beans, and wheat; it was rich in elephants, horses, humped cattle, gold, silver, fine iron, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, Anxi incense, qingmu and other aromatics, rock honey, half-honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite. Northward to Fanyan was seven hundred li; eastward to Jie was six hundred li; northeastward to Guazhou was 6,600 li. In the Daye period they sent envoys with local products.

Fu

The state of Fu was more than two thousand li northwest of Shu commandery, and was the southwestern barbarians of Han. There were the Jialiang barbarians, their eastern section. The inhabited stock and surnames led one another. Their local customs were the same as those of Fu, but their language was slightly different, and they were not governed as one. The people had no surnames. The king of Fu had the personal name Yizeng. His state was eight hundred li north-south and 1,500 li southeastward. It had no cities or palisades, and lay near river valleys beside steep mountains. Their custom liked revenge. Therefore they piled stones into towers and lived in them to avoid harm. The towers reached more than ten zhang high, or down to five or six zhang. Each level was more than a zhang, separated by wood. The base was three or four paces square; the upper part was two or three paces square. The shape resembled a pagoda. A small door was opened on the lower level, with passage upward from inside. At night it was always closed to prevent thieves. The state had more than twenty thousand families, and orders issued from the king. Among the Jialiang, government orders were tied to chieftains. For heavy crimes the offender was put to death; light punishments were fined in cattle.

The people were all light and nimble, and skilled at striking with swords. They lacquered hides for helmets and armor. Their bows were six feet long, with bamboo for the string. They married their collective mothers and elder brothers' wives; when sons or younger brothers died, fathers and elder brothers also took their wives. They liked songs and dances, beat mouth-organs, and blew long flutes. When someone died, there was no mourning dress. They placed the corpse on a high bed, washed and clothed it, covered it with helmet and armor, and laid animal skins over it. The descendants did not weep. Wearing armor, they danced with swords and cried out: "My father was taken by ghosts. I wish to avenge this wrong and kill the ghosts." Other relatives wept three times and stopped. Women, when they wept, had to cover their faces with both hands. The house of the dead killed cattle. Relatives gave one another pigs and wine, drank and ate together, and buried the dead. Ten years after death they made a great burial. At that burial they had to gather relatives and guests, and sometimes killed several tens of horses. They set up the spirit of the ancestor and served it.

Their custom used hide for caps, round in shape like bowls; some wore veiled caps. Their clothes were mostly haircloth and fur. They stripped the whole hide from cattle legs to make boots. They tied iron chains around the neck and wore iron bracelets on the hands. The king and chieftains used gold for head ornaments, and hung a golden flower on the chest, three inches across. Their land was high, the climate cool, with much wind and little rain. The soil was suitable for wheat and green millet. The mountains produced gold and silver and many white pheasants. The water had fine fish four feet long with small scales.

In the fourth Daye year their king sent envoys, Sufu and seven others, to court. The next year he again sent his younger brother's son Yilin, leading sixty Jialiang barbarians, to court with tribute. They wished to present good horses, but because the road was dangerous and impassable they requested that a mountain road be opened so that they might cultivate their tribute duty. Emperor Yang would not allow it, because it would weary the people.

In Jialiang there was a river sixty or seventy zhang wide, and in Fu there was a river more than a hundred zhang wide. Both flowed south, and people used hide boats to cross them. South of Fu were the Boyuan barbarians, whose customs were also the same. To the west was the Women's State. To the northeast, linked mountain ranges stretched for several thousand li and joined the Dangxiang. There were often Qiang there: Great and Lesser Zuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Na'e, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, and Qiandiao, all in deep mountains and exhausted valleys, with no great ruler. Their customs were roughly like those of the Dangxiang. Some were subject to Tuyuhun; some were attached to Fu.

In the Daye period they came to court with tribute. Along the southwestern frontier, various circuit commanders-in-chief were established to govern them from afar.

Historian's Judgment

The historian said: From antiquity, opening distant barbarians and communicating with cut-off regions has always depended on broad and indulgent rulers, and it has always arisen from ministers fond of affairs. Zhang Qian hollowed out the road before; Ban Chao cast aside the writing brush after him. Some bound the foreign peoples with heavy treasure; some awed them with sharp swords. They threw their bodies into lands of ten thousand deaths in order to seek one morning's achievement. This all came from rulers admiring the name of attracting the distant, and ministers sacrificing themselves to the distinction of taking life lightly. From this one knows that when those above love something, those below must go still further.

Emperor Yang's schemes were vast and extravagant, covering and swallowing Qin and Han. Pei Ju was just then presenting the Illustrations and Records of the Western Regions in order to stir his heart. Therefore the emperor personally went out through the Jade Gate, set up Yiwu and Qiemo, and from west of the passes to the flowing sands there was distress with no livelihood. If the northern barbarians had caused no alarm and the eastern barbarians had reported victory, he surely would have repaired the Luntai garrison, built the city of Wulei, sought the bright pearls of Da Qin, and brought the bird eggs of Tiaozhi. With transport going and returning, how could the suffering have been borne?

The system of the wise kings of antiquity covered five thousand li square. They devoted themselves to pacifying the Chinese states and did not serve the distant wilderness. Was this because their awe could not be imposed, or their virtue could not reach? It was because they did not use the four barbarians to weary China, and did not use what was useless to harm what was useful. Thus Qin garrisoned the Five Ranges and Han served on the three frontiers; in some cases corpses of those who died on the roads looked at one another, in others the registered households were reduced by half. The Sui house relied on its strength and prosperity, and it too was thrown into distress at Qinghai. All this was because one man lost the Way, and so the millions suffered its poison. If he had deeply reflected on the principle of ordering by sequence, firmly declined requests for protector-generalships, returned the thousand-li horses, and not sought the tribute of the Bailang, then the seven Rong and nine Yi would have waited for the wind and come through repeated interpreters. Even without a victory in Liaodong, how would it have reached the disaster at Jiangdu?

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was made from the Classical Chinese text of Sui Shu volume 83, Biographies 48, Western Regions, preserved in the local Scythian expansion source base.

The translation is complete for the source body printed below. Proper names follow the received Chinese forms where a secure English historical equivalent is not necessary for reading the passage.

Compiled for the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

🌲

Source Text: Classical Chinese

### Opening Frame

漢氏初開西域，有三十六國，其後分立五十五王，置校尉、都護以撫納之。王莽篡位，西域遂絕。至於後漢，班超所通者五十餘國，西至西海，東西四萬里，皆來朝貢，復置都護、校尉以相統攝。其後或絕或通，漢朝以為勞弊中國，其官時廢時置。暨魏、晉之後，互相吞滅，不可詳焉。

煬帝時，遣侍御史韋節、司隸從事杜行滿使於西蕃諸國。至𦋺賓，得碼碯杯；王舍城，得佛經；史國，得十舞女、師子皮、火鼠毛而還。帝復令聞喜公裴矩於武威、張掖間往來以引致之。其有君長者四十四國。矩因其使者入朝，啗以厚利，令其轉相諷諭。大業年中，相率而來朝者三十餘國，帝因置西域校尉以應接之。尋屬中國大亂，朝貢遂絕。然事多亡失，今所存錄者，二十國焉。

### 吐谷渾

吐谷渾，本遼西鮮卑徒河涉歸子也。初，涉歸有二子，庶長曰吐谷渾，少曰若洛廆。涉歸死，若洛廆代統部落，是為慕容氏。吐谷渾與若洛廆不協，遂西度隴，止于甘松之南，洮水之西，南極白蘭山，數千里之地，其後遂以吐谷渾為國氏焉。當魏、周之際，始稱可汗。都伏俟城，在青海西十五里。有城郭而不居，隨逐水草。官有王公、僕射、尚書、郎中、將軍。其主以皁為帽，妻戴金花。其器械衣服略與中國同。其王公貴人多戴羃䍦，婦人裙襦辮髮，綴以珠貝。國無常稅。殺人及盜馬者死，餘坐則徵物以贖罪。風俗頗同突厥。喪有服制，葬訖而除。性皆貪忍。有大麥、粟、豆。青海周廻千餘里，中有小山，其俗至冬輒放牝馬於其上，言得龍種。吐谷渾嘗得波斯草馬，放入海，因生騘駒，能日行千里，故時稱青海騘焉。多氂牛，饒銅、鐵、朱砂。地兼鄯善、且末。西北有流沙數百里，夏有熱風，傷斃行旅。風之將至，老駝預知之，則引項而鳴，聚立，以口鼻埋沙中。人見則知之，以氈擁蔽口鼻而避其患。

其主呂夸，在周數為邊寇，及開皇初，以兵侵弘州。高祖以弘州地曠人梗，因而廢之。遣上柱國元諧率步騎數萬擊之。賊悉發國中兵，自曼頭至於樹敦，甲騎不絕。其所署河西總管、定城王鍾利房及其太子可博汗，前後來拒戰。諧頻擊破之，俘斬甚衆。呂夸大懼，率其親兵遠遁。其名王十三人，各率部落而降。上以其高寧王移茲裒素得衆心，拜為大將軍，封河南王，以統降衆，自餘官賞各有差。未幾，復來寇邊，旭州刺史皮子信出兵拒戰，為賊所敗，子信死之。汶州總管梁遠以銳卒擊之，斬千餘級，奔退。俄而入寇廓州，州兵擊走之。

呂夸在位百年，屢因喜怒廢其太子而殺之。其後太子懼見廢辱，遂謀執呂夸而降，請兵於邊吏。秦州總管、河間王弘請將兵應之，上不許。太子謀洩，為其父所殺，復立其少子嵬王訶為太子。疊州刺史杜粲請因其釁而討之，上又不許。六年，嵬王訶復懼其父誅之，謀率部落萬五千人戶將歸國，遣使詣闕，請兵迎接。上謂侍臣曰：「渾賊風俗，特異人倫，父旣不慈，子復不孝。朕以德訓人，何有成其惡逆也！吾當教之以義方耳。」乃謂使者曰：「朕受命於天，撫育四海，望使一切生人皆以仁義相向。況父子天性，何得不相親愛也！吐谷渾主旣是嵬王之父，嵬王是吐谷渾主太子，父有不是，子須陳諫。若諫而不從，當令近臣親戚內外諷諭。必不可，泣涕而道之。人皆有情，必當感悟。不可潛謀非法，受不孝之名。溥天之下，皆是朕臣妾，各為善事，即稱朕心。嵬王旣有好意，欲來投朕，朕唯教嵬王為臣子之法，不可遠遣兵馬，助為惡事。」嵬王乃止。八年，其名王拓拔木彌請以千餘家歸化。上曰：「溥天之下，皆曰朕臣，雖復荒遐，未識風教，朕之撫育，俱以仁孝為本。渾賊惛狂，妻子懷怖，並思歸化，自救危亡。然叛夫背父，不可收納。又其本意，正自避死，若今遣拒，又復不仁。若更有意信，但宜慰撫，任其自拔，不須出兵馬應接之。其妹夫及甥欲來，亦任其意，不勞勸誘也。」是歲河南王移茲裒死，高祖令其弟樹歸襲統其衆。平陳之後，呂夸大懼，遁逃保險，不敢為寇。

十一年，呂夸卒，子伏立。使其兄子無素奉表稱藩，并獻方物，請以女備後庭。上謂滕王曰：「此非至誠，但急計耳。」乃謂無素曰：「朕知渾主欲令女事朕，若依來請，他國聞之，便當相學。一許一塞，是謂不平。若並許之，又非好法。朕情存安養，欲令遂性，豈可聚斂子女以實後宮乎？」竟不許。十二年，遣刑部尚書宇文㢸撫慰之。十六年，以光化公主妻伏，伏上表稱公主為天后，上不許。

明年，其國大亂，國人殺伏，立其弟伏允為主。使使陳廢立之事，并謝專命之罪，且請依俗尚主，上從之。自是朝貢歲至，而常訪國家消息，上甚惡之。

煬帝即位，伏允遣其子順來朝。時鐵勒犯塞，帝遣將軍馮孝慈出敦煌以禦之，孝慈戰不利。鐵勒遣使謝罪，請降，帝遣黃門侍郎裴矩慰撫之，諷令擊吐谷渾以自効。鐵勒許諾，即勒兵襲吐谷渾，大敗之。伏允東走，保西平境。帝復令觀王雄出澆河、許公宇文述出西平以掩之，大破其衆。伏允遁逃，部落來降者十萬餘口。六畜三十餘萬。述追之急，伏允懼，南遁於山谷間。其故地皆空，自西平臨羌城以西，且末以東，祁連以南，雪山以北，東西四千里，南北二千里，皆為隋有。置郡縣鎮戍，發天下輕罪徙居之。於是留順不之遣。伏允無以自資，率其徒數千騎客於党項。帝立順為主，送出玉門，令統餘衆，以其大寶王尼洛周為輔。至西平，其部下殺洛周，順不果入而還。大業末，天下亂，伏允復其故地，屢寇河右，郡縣不能禦焉。

### 党項

党項羌者，三苗之後也。其種有宕昌、白狼，皆自稱獼猴種。東接臨洮、西平，西拒葉護，南北數千里，處山谷間。每姓別為部落，大者五千餘騎，小者千餘騎。織氂牛尾及𦍩䍽毛以為屋。服裘褐，披氈，以為上飾。俗尚武力，無法令，各為生業，有戰陣則相屯聚。無徭賦，不相往來。牧養氂牛、羊、豬以供食，不知稼穡。其俗淫穢蒸報，於諸夷中最為甚。無文字，但候草木以記歲時。三年一聚會，殺牛羊以祭天。人年八十以上死者，以為令終，親戚不哭。少而死者，則云大枉，共悲哭之。有琵琶、橫吹，擊缶為節。

魏、周之際，數來擾邊。高祖為丞相時，中原多故，因此大為寇掠。蔣公梁睿旣平王謙，請因還師以討之，高祖不許。開皇四年，有千餘家歸化。五年，拓拔寧叢等各率衆詣旭州內附，授大將軍，其部下各有差。十六年，復寇會州，詔發隴西兵以討之，大破其衆。又相率請降，願為臣妾，遣子弟入朝謝罪。高祖謂之曰：「還語爾父兄，人生須有定居，養老長幼。而乃乍還乍走，不羞鄉里邪！」自是朝貢不絕。

### 高昌

高昌國者，則漢車師前王庭也，去敦煌十三日行。其境東西三百里，南北五百里，四面多大山。昔漢武帝遣兵西討，師旅頓敝，其中尤困者因住焉。其地有漢時高昌壘，故以為國號。初，蠕蠕立闞伯周為高昌王。伯周死，子義成立，為從兄首歸所殺。首歸自立為高昌王，又為高車阿伏至羅所殺。以敦煌人張孟明為主。孟明為國人所殺，更以馬儒為王，以鞏顧、麴嘉二人為左右長史。儒又通使後魏，請內屬。內屬人皆戀土，不願東遷，相與殺儒，立嘉為王。嘉字靈鳳，金城榆中人，旣立，又臣于茹茹。及茹茹主為高車所殺，嘉又臣于高車。屬焉耆為挹怛所破，衆不能自統，請主於嘉。嘉遣其第二子為焉耆王，由是始大，益為國人所服。嘉死，子堅立。

其都城周迴一千八百四十步，於坐室畫魯哀公問政於孔子之像。國內有城十八。官有令尹一人，次公二人，次左右衛，次八長史，次五將軍，次八司馬，次侍郎、校郎、主簿、從事、省事。大事決之於王，小事長子及公評斷，不立文記。男子胡服，婦人裙襦，頭上作髻。其風俗政令與華夏略同。地多石磧，氣候溫暖，穀麥再熟，宜蠶，多五果。有草名為羊刺，其上生蜜，而味甚佳。出赤鹽如朱，白鹽如玉。多蒲陶酒。俗事天神，兼信佛法。國中羊馬牧於隱僻之處，以避外寇，非貴人不知其所。北有赤石山，山北七十里有貪汗山，夏有積雪。此山之北，鐵勒界也。從武威西北，有捷路，度沙磧千餘里，四面茫然，無有蹊徑。欲往者，尋有人畜骸骨而去。路中或聞歌哭之聲，行人尋之，多致亡失，蓋魑魅魍魎也。故商客往來，多取伊吾路。

開皇十年，突厥破其四城，有二千人來歸中國。堅死，子伯雅立。其大母本突厥可汗女，其父死，突厥令依其俗，伯雅不從者久之。突厥逼之，不得已而從。

煬帝嗣位，引致諸蕃。大業四年，遣使貢獻，帝待其使甚厚。明年，伯雅來朝。因從擊高麗，還尚宗女華容公主。八年冬歸蕃，下令國中曰：「夫經國字人，以保存為貴，寧邦緝政，以全濟為大。先者以國處邊荒，境連猛狄，同人無咎，被髮左衽。今大隋統御，宇宙平一，普天率土，莫不齊向。孤旣沐浴和風，庶均大化，其庶人以上皆宜解辮削衽。」帝聞而甚善之，下詔曰：「彰德嘉善，聖哲所隆，顯誠遂良，典謨貽則。光祿大夫、弁國公、高昌王伯雅識量經遠，器懷溫裕，丹款夙著，亮節遐宣。本自諸華，歷祚西壤，昔因多難，淪迫獯戎，數窮毀冕，翦為胡服。自我皇隋平一宇宙，化偃九圍，德加四表。伯雅踰沙忘阻，奉賮來庭，觀禮容於舊章，慕威儀之盛典。於是襲纓解辮，削衽曳裾，變夷從夏，義光前載。可賜衣冠之具，仍班製造之式。并遣使人部領將送。被以采章，復見車服之美，棄彼氈毳，還為冠帶之國。」然伯雅先臣鐵勒，而鐵勒恒遣重臣在高昌國，有商胡往來者，則稅之送於鐵勒。雖有此令取悅中華，然竟畏鐵勒而不敢改也。自是歲令使人貢其方物。

### 康國

康國者，康居之後也。遷徙無常，不恒故地，然自漢以來相承不絕。其王本姓溫，月氏人也。舊居祁連山北昭武城，因被匈奴所破，西踰葱嶺，遂有其國。支庶各分王，故康國左右諸國並以昭武為姓，示不忘本也。王字代失畢，為人寬厚，甚得衆心。其妻突厥達度可汗女也。都於薩寶水上阿祿迪城。城多衆居。大臣三人共掌國事。其王索髮，冠七寶金花，衣綾羅錦繡白疊。其妻有髻，幪以皂巾。丈夫翦髮錦袍。名為強國，而西域諸國多歸之。米國、史國、曹國、何國、安國、小安國、那色波國、烏那曷國、穆國皆歸附之。有胡律，置於祅祠，決罰則取而斷之。重罪者族，次重者死，賊盜截其足。

人皆深目高鼻，多鬚髯。善於商賈，諸夷交易，多湊其國。有大小鼓、琵琶、五絃、箜篌、笛。婚姻喪制與突厥同。國立祖廟，以六月祭之，諸國皆來助祭。俗奉佛，為胡書。氣候溫，宜五穀，勤脩園蔬，樹木滋茂。出馬、駝、騾、驢、封牛、黃金、鐃沙、香、阿薩那香、瑟瑟、麖皮、氍㲣、錦疊。多蒲陶酒，富家或致千石，連年不敗。

大業中，始遣使貢方物，後遂絕焉。

### 安國

安國，漢時安息國也。王姓昭武氏，與康國王同族，字設力登。妻，康國王女也。都在那密水南，城有五重，環以流水。宮殿皆為平頭。王坐金駝座，高七八尺。每聽政，與妻相對，大臣三人評理國事。風俗同於康國，唯妻其姊妹，及母子遞相禽獸，此為異也。煬帝即位之後，遣司隸從事杜行滿使於西域，至其國，得五色鹽而返。國之西百餘里有畢國，可千餘家。其國無君長，安國統之。大業五年，遣使貢獻，後遂絕焉。

### 石國

石國，居於藥殺水，都城方十餘里。其王姓石，名涅。國城之東南立屋，置座於中，正月六日、七月十五日以王父母燒餘之骨，金甕盛之，置于牀上，巡遶而行，散以花香雜果，王率臣下設祭焉。禮終，王與夫人出就別帳，臣下以次列坐，享宴而罷。有粟麥，多良馬。其俗善戰，曾貳於突厥，射匱可汗興兵滅之，令特勤甸職攝其國事。南去鏺汗六百里，東南去瓜州六千里。甸職以大業五年遣使朝貢，其後不復至。

### 女國

女國，在葱嶺之南，其國代以女為王。王姓蘇毗，字末羯，在位二十年。女王之夫，號曰金聚，不知政事。國內丈夫唯以征伐為務。山上為城，方五六里，人有萬家。王居九層之樓，侍女數百人，五日一聽朝。復有小女王，共知國政。其俗貴婦人，輕丈夫，而性不妒忌。男女皆以彩色塗面，一日之中，或數度變改之。人皆被髮，以皮為鞋，課稅無常。氣候多寒，以射獵為業。出鍮石、朱砂、麝香、氂牛、駿馬、蜀馬。尤多鹽，恒將鹽向天竺興販，其利數倍。亦數與天竺及党項戰爭。其女王死，國中則厚斂金錢，求死者族中之賢女二人，一為女王，次為小王。貴人死，剝取皮，以金屑和骨肉置於瓶內而埋之。經一年，又以其皮內於鐵器埋之。俗事阿脩羅神。又有樹神，歲初以人祭，或用獼猴。祭畢，入山祝之，有一鳥如雌雉，來集掌上，破其腹而視之，有粟則年豐，沙石則有災，謂之鳥卜。開皇六年，遣使朝貢，其後遂絕。

### 焉耆

焉耆國，都白山之南七十里，漢時舊國也。其王姓龍，字突騎。都城方二里。國內有九城，勝兵千餘人。國無綱維。其俗奉佛書，類婆羅門。婚姻之禮有同華夏。死者焚之，持服七日。男子翦髮。有魚鹽蒲葦之利。東去高昌九百里，西去龜茲九百里，皆沙磧。東南去瓜州二千二百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 龜茲

龜茲國，都白山之南百七十里，漢時舊國也。其王姓白，字蘇尼咥。都城方六里。勝兵者數千。俗殺人者死，劫賊斷其一臂，并刖一足。俗與焉耆同。王頭繫綵帶，垂之於後，坐金師子座。土多稻、粟、菽、麥，饒銅、鐵、鉛、麖皮、氍㲣、鐃沙、鹽綠、雌黃、胡粉、安息香、良馬、封牛。東去焉耆九百里，南去于闐千四百里，西去疏勒千五百里，西北去突厥牙六百餘里，東南去瓜州三千一百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 疏勒

疏勒國，都白山南百餘里，漢時舊國也。其王字阿彌厥。手足皆六指。產子非六指者，即不育。都城方五里。國內有大城十二，小城數十，勝兵者二千人。王戴金師子冠。土多稻、粟、麻、麥、銅、鐵、錦、雌黃，每歲常供送於突厥。南有黃河，西帶葱嶺，東去龜茲千五百里，西去鏺汗國千里，南去朱俱波八九百里，東北去突厥牙千餘里，東南去瓜州四千六百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 于闐

于闐國，都葱嶺之北二百餘里。其王姓王，字卑示閉練。都城方八九里。國中大城有五，小城數十，勝兵者數千人。俗奉佛，尤多僧尼，王每持齋戒。城南五十里有贊摩寺者，云是羅漢比丘比盧旃所造，石上有辟支佛徒跣之迹。于闐西五百里有比摩寺，云是老子化胡成佛之所。俗無禮義，多賊盜淫縱。王錦帽，金鼠冠，妻戴金花。其王髮不令人見。俗云，若見王髮，年必儉。土多麻、麥、粟、稻、五果，多園林，山多美玉。東去鄯善千五百里，南去女國三千里，西去朱俱波千里，北去龜茲千四百里，東北去瓜州二千八百里。大業中，頻遣使朝貢。

### 鏺汗

鏺汗國，都葱嶺之西五百餘里，古渠搜國也。王姓昭武，字阿利柒。都城方四里。勝兵數千人。王坐金羊牀，妻戴金花。俗多朱砂、金、鐵。東去疏勒千里，西去蘇對沙那國五百里，西北去石國五百里，東北去突厥牙二千餘里，東去瓜州五千五百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 吐火羅

吐火羅國，都葱嶺西五百里，與挹怛雜居。都城方二里。勝兵者十萬人，皆習戰。其俗奉佛。兄弟同一妻，迭寢焉，每一人入房，戶外挂其衣以為志。生子屬其長兄。其山穴中有神馬，每歲牧牝馬於穴所，必產名駒。南去漕國千七百里，東去瓜州五千八百里。大業中，遣使朝貢。

### 挹怛

挹怛國，都烏滸水南二百餘里，大月氏之種類也。勝兵者五六千人。俗善戰。先時國亂，突厥遣通設字詰強領其國。都城方十餘里。多寺塔，皆飾以金。兄弟同妻。婦人有一夫者，冠一角帽，夫兄弟多者，依其數為角。南去曹國千五百里，東去瓜州六千五百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 米國

米國，都那密水西，舊康居之地也。無王。其城主姓昭武，康國王之支庶，字閉拙。都城方二里。勝兵數百人。西北去康國百里，東去蘇對沙那國五百里，西南去史國二百里，東去瓜州六千四百里。大業中，頻貢方物。

### 史國

史國，都獨莫水南十里，舊康居之地也。其王姓昭武，字逖遮，亦康國王之支庶也。都城方二里。勝兵千餘人。俗同康國。北去康國二百四十里，南去吐火羅五百里，西去那色波國二百里，東北去米國二百里，東去瓜州六千五百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 曹國

曹國，都那密水南數里，舊是康居之地也。國無主，康國王令子烏建領之。都城方三里。勝兵千餘人。國中有得悉神，自西海以東諸國並敬事之。其神有金人焉，金破羅闊丈有五尺，高下相稱。每日以駝五頭、馬十匹、羊一百口祭之，常有千人食之不盡。東南去康國百里，西去何國百五十里，東去瓜州六千六百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 何國

何國，都那密水南數里，舊是康居之地也。其王姓昭武，亦康國王之族類，字敦。都城方二里。勝兵千人。其王坐金羊座。東去曹國百五十里，西去小安國三百里，東去瓜州六千七百五十里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 烏那曷

烏那曷國，都烏滸水西，舊安息之地也。王姓昭武，亦康國種類，字佛食。都城方二里。勝兵數百人。王坐金羊座。東北去安國四百里，西北去穆國二百餘里，東去瓜州七千五百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 穆國

穆國，都烏滸河之西，亦安息之故地，與烏那曷為鄰。其王姓昭武，亦康國王之種類也，字阿濫密。都城方三里，勝兵二千人。東北去安國五百里，東去烏那曷二百餘里，西去波斯國四千餘里，東去瓜州七千七百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 波斯

波斯國，都達曷水之西蘇藺城，即條支之故地也。其王字庫薩和。都城方十餘里。勝兵二萬餘人，乘象而戰。國無死刑，或斷手刖足，沒家財，或剃去其鬚，或繫排於項，以為標異。人年三歲已上，出口錢四文。妻其姊妹。人死者，棄屍于山，持服一月。王著金花冠，坐金師子座，傅金屑於鬚上以為飾。衣錦袍，加瓔珞於其上。土多良馬、大驢、師子、白象、大鳥卵、真珠、頗黎、獸魄、珊瑚、琉璃、瑪瑙、水精、瑟瑟、呼洛羯、呂騰、火齊、金剛、金、銀、鍮石、銅、鑌鐵、錫、錦疊、細布、氍、㲣毾、㲪、護那、越諾布、檀、金縷織成、赤麖皮、朱沙、水銀、薰陸、鬱金、蘇合、青木等諸香，胡椒、畢撥、石蜜、半蜜、千年棗、附子、訶黎勒、無食子、鹽綠、雌黃。突厥不能至其國，亦羈縻之。波斯每遣使貢獻。西去海數百里，東去穆國四千餘里，西北去拂菻四千五百里，東去瓜州萬一千七百里。

煬帝遣雲騎尉李昱使通波斯，尋遣使隨昱貢方物。

### 漕國

漕國，在葱嶺之北，漢時𦋺賓國也。其王姓昭武，字順達，康國王之宗族。都城方四里。勝兵者萬餘人。國法嚴整，殺人及賊盜皆死。其俗淫祠。葱嶺山有順天神者，儀制極華，金銀鍱為屋，以銀為地，祠者日有千餘人。祠前有一魚脊骨，其孔中通，馬騎出入。國王戴金魚頭冠，坐金馬座。土多稻、粟、豆、麥；饒象、馬、封牛、金、銀、鑌鐵、氍、㲣、朱砂、青黛、安息、青木等香，石蜜、半、蜜、黑鹽、阿魏、沒藥、白附子。北去帆延七百里，東去刦國六百里，東北去瓜州六千六百里。大業中，遣使貢方物。

### 附國

附國者，蜀郡西北二千餘里，即漢之西南夷也。有嘉良夷，即其東部，所居種姓自相率領，土俗與附國同，言語少殊，不相統一。其人並無姓氏。附國王字宜繒。其國南北八百里，東南千五百里，無城柵，近川谷，傍山險。俗好復讎，故壘石為𥕘而居，以避其患。其𥕘高至十餘丈，下至五六丈，每級丈餘，以木隔之。基方三四步，𥕘上方二三步，狀似浮圖。於下級開小門，從內上通，夜必關閉，以防賊盜。國有二萬餘家，號令自王出。嘉良夷政令繫之酋帥，重罪者死，輕刑罰牛。

人皆輕捷，便於擊劔。漆皮為牟甲，弓長六尺，以竹為弦。妻其羣母及嫂，兒弟死，父兄亦納其妻。好歌舞，鼓簧，吹長笛。有死者，無服制，置屍高牀之上，沐浴衣服，被以牟甲，覆以獸皮。子孫不哭，帶甲舞劔而呼云：「我父為鬼所取，我欲報冤殺鬼。」自餘親戚哭三聲而止。婦人哭，必以兩手掩面。死家殺牛，親屬以豬酒相遺，共飲噉而瘞之。死後十年而大葬，其葬必集親賓，殺馬動至數十匹。立其祖父神而事之。其俗以皮為帽，形圓如缽，或帶羃䍦。衣多毛毼皮裘，全剝牛腳皮為靴。項繫鐵鎖，手貫鐵釧。王與酋帥，金為首飾，胸前懸一金花，徑三寸。其土高，氣候涼，多風少雨。土宜小麥、青梁。山出金、銀、多白雉。水有嘉魚，長四尺而鱗細。

大業四年，其王遣使素福等八人入朝。明年，又遣其弟子宜林率嘉良夷六十人朝貢。欲獻良馬，以路險不通，請開山道以脩職貢。煬帝以勞人不許。

嘉良有水，闊六七十丈，附國有水，闊百餘丈，並南流，用皮為舟而濟。

附國南有薄緣夷，風俗亦同。西有女國。其東北連山，綿亙數千里，接於党項。往往有羌：大、小左封、昔衛、葛延、白狗、向人、望族、林臺、春桑、利豆、迷桑、婢藥、大硤、白蘭、叱利摸徒、那鄂、當迷、渠步、桑悟、千碉，並在深山窮谷，無大君長。其風俗略同於党項，或役屬吐谷渾，或附附國。

大業中，來朝貢。緣西南邊置諸道總管，以遙管之。

史臣曰：自古開遠夷，通絕域，必因宏放之主，皆起好事之臣。張騫鑿空於前，班超投筆於後，或結之以重寶，或懾之以利劔，投軀萬死之地，以要一旦之功，皆由主尚來遠之名，臣殉輕生之節。是知上之所好，下必有甚者也。煬帝規摹宏侈，掩吞秦、漢，裴矩方進《西域圖記》以蕩其心，故萬乘親出玉門關，置伊吾、且末，而關右暨於流沙，騷然無聊生矣。若使北狄無虞，東夷告捷，必將脩輪臺之戍，築烏壘之城，求大秦之明珠，致條支之鳥卵，往來轉輸，將何以堪其敝哉！古者哲王之制，方五千里，務安諸夏，不事要荒。豈威不能加，德不能被？蓋不以四夷勞中國，不以無用害有用也。是以秦戍五嶺，漢事三邊，或道殣相望，或戶口減半。隋室恃其強盛，亦狼狽於青海。此皆一人失其道，故億兆罹其毒。若深思即叙之義，固辭都護之請，返其千里之馬，不求白狼之貢，則七戎九夷，候風重譯，雖無遼東之捷，豈及江都之禍乎！

Source Colophon

The Classical Chinese source body was extracted from the local source-text page Good Works Library Ready/Scythian/Expansion Bench 2026-05-11/Sui Shu -- Western Regions -- Classical Chinese Source Text.md and copied for this translation pass at Tulku/Tools/scythian/sources/expansion_bench_2026-05-11/suishu_western_regions_chinese_source_manual91.txt.

The local source page identifies its inspection route as Chinese Text Project, https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?chapter=777185&if=en, CTP URN ctp:ws777185, with a simplified-script comparison route also captured.

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