selected from volume 193

Tongdian preserves a Tang encyclopedic chain of earlier western-frontier notices. The selected passages move from Han Kangju and Yancai to the Sogdian Zhaowu states, Hephthalites and Yida, Tokharistan, and early Dashi.

The selection is evidence for historical transmission and classification across centuries. It keeps older Han material, Northern Wei material, Sui notices, and Tang-era reports in view without flattening them into one period.

The English is a Good Works Translation from the Classical Chinese passages printed below.

Translation

Kangju

The state of Kangju communicated with Han in Han times. It lay about two thousand li northwest of Dawan and bordered Suyi and Yilie. The king governed in the land of Leyueni, at Bitiian City; he also lived at Suxie City. It was twelve thousand three hundred li from Chang'an. It was not subject to the Protector-General. It had one hundred twenty thousand households. Eastward to the seat of the Protector-General was five thousand five hundred li.

Its customs were the same as those of the Great Yuezhi. The land was mild and warm, rich in paulownia, willows, and grapes. It had many cattle and sheep, and produced good horses. In the east it was loosely attached to the Xiongnu.

In the time of Emperor Xuan, Zhizhi Chanyu killed Han envoys and blocked himself off in the west at Kangju. Relying on its difficult positions, he protected and fortified himself. Later Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang executed and destroyed Zhizhi Chanyu.

By the time of Emperor Cheng, Kangju sent a son to attend Han and presented tribute. Yet because it regarded itself as utterly distant, it alone was arrogant and contemptuous. Protector-General Guo Shun repeatedly submitted words:

"Kangju is arrogant and crafty. Now it has sent a son to attend. This is because it wants trade and markets, and its friendly words are deceit. The attending son should be returned, and envoys should be cut off and not sent again. Do not communicate with its state. Dunhuang, Jiuquan, the small commanderies, and the eight states of the southern road all suffer shortage in supplying food, men, horses, donkeys, and camels for envoys going and coming. To exhaust and consume in vain the places through which they pass, sending and receiving an arrogant, crafty, utterly distant state, is not the highest plan."

Because Han had only recently communicated with Kangju, and valued the reputation of drawing distant people, it put weight on that name and in the end kept it loosely attached but did not cut it off. After this nothing more was heard of it; perhaps its name changed, or it migrated, or it was swallowed up and merged. The details are not known.

In the Taishi period of Emperor Wu of Jin, its king Nabi sent envoys and offered good horses.

In the Taiyan period of Emperor Taiwu of the Later Wei, it sent envoys and tribute. The state was also called Zheshe. The history of Later Wei says that it was the Kangju state of Han.

In Sui times it was called Kang. In the Daye period it sent envoys and tribute. Its king's surname was Wen, and he was a Yuezhi man. The history of Sui says: "It is the descendant of Han Kangju; from the Han onward it continued without interruption." Formerly they lived north of the Qilian Mountains at Zhaowu City. After they were broken by the Xiongnu, they crossed west beyond the Congling Mountains and came to possess this state. Branch houses each divided and became kings. Therefore the nine states to the left and right of Kang - Mi, Shi, Cao, He, An, Little An, Nasebo, Wunage, and Mu - are all of its kind, and all use Zhaowu as surname, to show that they do not forget their origin.

Wei Jie's Record of the Western Foreigners says: "The people of Kang are all good at trade. When a boy is five years old, they make him study writing. When he understands a little, they send him to learn trade, and they consider it good if he gains much profit. The people love music and sound. They take the first day of the sixth month as New Year. On that day, the king and the common people all wear new clothes and cut their hair and beards. East of the state-city, under the trees, they hold horse-archery for seven days. On the day when they are about to stop, they place one gold coin on a target; whoever hits it becomes king for one day. By custom they serve the heavenly spirit with very great reverence. They say the spirit's son died in the seventh month and the bones were lost. Those who serve the spirit, whenever that month comes, all wear black folded-cloth garments, go barefoot, beat their breasts, and cry out; tears flow together. Three to five hundred men and women scatter through the grasslands looking for the bones of the heavenly son. After seven days they stop. Outside the state-city there are separately more than two hundred households who know only burial affairs. They build a separate enclosure, and inside the enclosure they keep dogs. Whenever someone dies, they go and take the corpse, place it in this enclosure, and let the dogs eat it. When the flesh is gone, they gather the bones and bury them without coffin or outer coffin."

In the twenty-first year of Zhenguan of Great Tang, this state offered yellow peaches, as large as goose eggs and colored like gold; they are also called golden peaches. Du Huan's Record of Travels says: "The state of Kang is more than three hundred li southwest of Mi. It is also called Samarkand. The soil is fertile, the people are wealthy, and the state is small. There is a spirit shrine named Ba. The service of this shrine in the various states originally came from here."

Cao

The state of Cao, in Sui times, had its capital several li south of the Nami River. It was formerly land of Kangju. The state had no ruler, and the king of Kang ordered his son Wujian to lead it. It had more than one thousand victorious soldiers.

Within the state there was the god Dexi. All the states from west of the Western Sea eastward revered and served this god. The god had a golden figure and a golden basin one zhang and five chi wide, with height and breadth in proportion. Each month they sacrificed to it five camels, ten horses, and one hundred sheep. Often one thousand people ate from the sacrifice and did not finish it.

It was one hundred li southeast from Kang, one hundred fifty li west from He, and six thousand six hundred li east from Guazhou. In the Daye period it sent envoys and came with tribute.

He

The state of He, in Sui times, also had its capital several li south of the Nami River. It too was former Kangju land. Its king's surname was Zhaowu, and he too was a branch kind of the state of Kang. On the northern wall of the tower in the state-city there was painted the Son of Heaven of China; on the western wall were painted the kings of Persia, Fulin, and other states; on the eastern wall were painted the kings of the Turks, Brahmans, and other states.

It had one thousand victorious soldiers. Its king sat on a golden ram seat. Its customs were the same as those of Kang. It was one hundred fifty li east from Cao, three hundred li west from Little An, and six thousand seven hundred fifty li east from Guazhou. In the Daye period, and in the Wude and Zhenguan periods of Great Tang, it sent envoys and came with tribute.

Shi

The state of Shi, in Sui times, had its capital ten li south of the Dumo River. It too was former Kangju land. Its king's surname was Zhaowu, and he too was a branch house of the king of Kang. It had more than one thousand victorious soldiers. Its customs were the same as Kang's. It was two hundred forty li north from Kang, five hundred li south from Tokharistan, two hundred li west from Nasebo, two hundred li northeast from Mi, and six thousand li east from Guazhou.

In the Daye period it first communicated with China. Later it gradually became strong and flourishing, and then founded Qishi City, several tens of li in extent, with a walled settlement of twenty thousand households. In the Zhenguan period of Great Tang, it sent envoys and came with tribute. Since the states of Cao, He, and Shi were all within the old territory of Han Kangju, they are attached here.

Yancai

Yancai communicated with Han in Han times. In the west it touched Da Qin; two thousand li to the southeast it touched Kangju. It was more than eight thousand li from Yang Pass. Those who drew the bow numbered more than one hundred thousand. Its customs were the same as Kangju's, and it was subject to Kangju.

The climate was mild and warm. It faced a great marsh without banks. There were many needle-pines, white grass, and martens. It herded livestock and pursued water and grass; it was probably near the Northern Sea.

In Later Han it changed its name to Alanliao. In Later Wei it was called Sogd, also named Wennasha. The history of Later Wei says: "At first the Xiongnu killed its king and possessed the state. By the beginning of Emperor Wencheng's reign, when it sent envoys and tribute, its king Huni had already ruled for three generations." In the time of Emperor Wu of Zhou, it also sent envoys and came with tribute.

Hephthalites and Yida

The state of the Hephthalites is sometimes said to be a separate kind of Gaoche, sometimes a kind of the Great Yuezhi. Its source came from beyond the frontier north of Jinshan. Moving south from Jinshan, it lay west of Khotan, ten thousand one hundred li east from Chang'an. By the time of Emperor Wen of Later Wei, it had already been eighty or ninety years.

Their clothing resembles Hu clothing, with cords and pendants added. They all cut their hair. Their language is different from that of the Rouran, Gaoche, and the various Hu. Their tribes may number one hundred thousand. They follow water and grass. Their state has no carts but has litters, and many camels and horses.

Their punishments are strict and urgent. Theft, whether much or little, is punished by cutting the body at the waist; for theft one repays tenfold. For the dead, wealthy families pile stones to make a tomb; poor families dig into the earth and bury. All the things that belonged to the dead person are placed in the grave.

Also, brothers jointly take one wife. If there are no brothers, the wife wears a hat with one horn. If there are brothers, then according to their number more horns are added to the hat. Kangju, Khotan, Shule, Anxi, and more than thirty lesser states of the Western Regions are all subject to them. They are called a great state. They sent envoys and tribute each time.

In the Xiping period of Emperor Xiaoming, Fu Zitong and Song Yun were sent as envoys to the Western Regions. Concerning the states through which they passed, they could not know their origins, endings, mountains, rivers, and distances in li. Here only their outline is given.

Yida is the same. In Sui times it was also called the state of Yida. The state of Yida had its capital more than two hundred li south of the Wuhu River. It was a kind of the Great Yuezhi. It had five or six thousand victorious soldiers, and by custom was good in battle. Earlier, when the state was in disorder, the Turks sent Tong Shad, personal name Jieqiang, to lead the state. Its customs were the same as Tokharistan. It was one thousand five hundred li south from Cao, and six thousand five hundred li east from Guazhou. In the Daye period it sent envoys and came with tribute.

According to Liu Fan's Liang Dian, the surname of the Hua state was Hephthalite; descendants used the surname as the state name, and through altered pronunciation it was also called Yida. Its original source is sometimes said to be of Cheshi stock, sometimes of Gaoche stock, sometimes of Great Yuezhi stock. Again, Wei Jie's Record of the Western Foreigners says: "When I personally questioned the people of that state, they all called themselves Yitian."

Again, according to Han Shu, when Chen Tang campaigned against Zhizhi, the Kangju deputy king Yitian plundered his rear baggage. This may be of the same kind as Kangju. But the traditions come from distant states; foreign speech is altered and confused; the years are long and remote. The true root cannot be known and cannot be distinguished. Now their customs, products, and what the various writers say are examined and arranged here.

Tokharistan

Tokharistan, also named Tuhuoyi, was the Tuhuluo state of Later Wei, and communicated in Sui times. Its capital was five hundred li west of the Congling Mountains, south of the Wuhu River, which is the Gui River. It lived mixed with Yida. It had one hundred thousand victorious soldiers, all practiced in war.

By custom they honor the Buddha. There are many men and few women; therefore brothers share the same chamber. If a woman has five husbands, her head ornament carries five horns; if ten husbands, it carries ten horns. A man without brothers joins with another man as a sworn brother, and only then can he get a wife; otherwise he has no wife throughout his life. A child born belongs to the eldest brother.

Their clothing and writing are broadly the same as those of Khotan. North of the city there is a crystal mountain. In a cave on its southern cliff there are divine horses. The people of the state always pasture mares beside it, and at times famous colts are born, all sweating blood.

Its northern border is the land of Han-time Dawan. It is one thousand seven hundred li south from Cao, and six thousand seven hundred li east from Guazhou. In the Daye period it sent envoys and came with tribute.

At the beginning of Great Tang, it belonged to the Western Turks. At the beginning of Yonghui under Gaozong, it sent envoys and offered a great bird, seven chi high, black in color, with feet like a camel. It walked by beating its wings, went three hundred li in a day, and could eat iron. The custom of the foreigners called it a camel-bird.

In the first year of Longshuo, prefectures and counties were established in Tokharistan. Its envoy Wang Mingyuan presented a Map Record of the Western Regions and requested that, from Khotan westward and Persia eastward, the sixteen states be divided and established as area commands and prefectures, with eighty prefectures, one hundred counties, and one hundred twenty-six military offices. He further requested that a stele be erected in Tokharistan to record the sagely virtue. The emperor followed it.

Dashi

In the Yonghui period of Great Tang, Dashi sent envoys and tribute, saying: "Our state lies west of Persia." Some say that at first there was a Persian Hu man who, as if aided by a spirit, obtained a knife and killed people. He then summoned and attached the various Hu. Eleven Hu men came, and according to order touched his head and received transformation, making him king. After this the multitude gradually attached itself. Then he destroyed Persia, and also broke Fulin and the Brahman city. Wherever he turned, none could withstand him. His troops numbered four hundred twenty thousand. Since the state began, thirty-four years have passed.

The first king had already died, and the succession passed to the first Moshu. The present king is the third. The king's surname is Dashi. The men of that state have noses large and long; they are thin, black, and have many beards, resembling Brahmans. The women are upright and beautiful. They also have writing, different from Persian. They produce camels, horses, donkeys, mules, billy-goats, and the like. Their land has much sand and stone and cannot be plowed and planted. It has no five grains; they eat the flesh of camels, horses, and the like. Only after they broke Persia and Fulin did they have rice and flour. They revere and serve the heavenly spirit.

It is also said: their king always sends men by ship, taking clothing and food into the sea. After passing through eight years, they still have not reached the western shore. In the sea they see a square stone; on the stone is a tree, with red branches and green leaves. On the tree small children are born all together, six or seven cun long. When they see people they do not speak, but all can laugh, moving their hands and feet. Their heads are attached to the branches of the tree. When people pluck them and take them in hand, they immediately dry and blacken. The envoy obtained one branch and returned. It is now in the possession of the king of Dashi.

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was made from selected Classical Chinese passages from Du You's Tongdian, volume 193.

The English translation is independently derived from the Classical Chinese source body.

Compiled for the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: Classical Chinese

### 康居

康居國，漢時通焉。在大宛西北可二千里，與粟弋、伊列鄰接。王理樂越匿地卑闐城，亦居蘇薤城，去長安萬二千三百里。不屬都護。戶十二萬。東至都護理所五千五百里。與大月氏同俗。地和暖，饒桐、柳、蒲萄，多牛羊，出好馬。東羈事匈奴。宣帝時，郅支單于殺漢使者，西阻康居。依其險阻，以自保固。其後甘延壽、陳湯誅滅郅支單于。至成帝時，康居遣子侍漢，貢獻。然自以絕遠，獨驕慢。都護郭舜數上言：「康居驕黠，今遣子入侍，此其欲賈市為好辭之詐也。宜歸其侍子，絕勿復使。不通使於其國。燉煌、酒泉小郡及南道八國，給使者往來人馬驢橐駝食，皆苦乏。空罷耗所過，送迎驕黠絕遠之國，非至計也。」漢為其新通，重致遠人，以此聲名為重。終羈縻而未絕。自後無聞，或名號變易，或遷徙吞并，非所詳也。

至晉武帝泰始中，其王那鼻遣使獻善馬。

至後魏太武太延中，遣使朝貢，其國又稱者舌。後魏史云即漢康居國也。

至隋時，謂之康國。大業中，遣使朝貢。其王姓溫，月氏人也。隋史云：「即漢康居之後，自漢以來，相承不絕。」舊居祁連山北昭武城，自被匈奴所破，西踰蔥嶺，遂有此國。枝庶各分王，故康國左右諸國，米國、史國、曹國、何國、安國、小安國、那色波國、烏那曷國、穆國凡九國，皆其種類，並以昭武為姓，示不忘本也。

韋節西蕃記云：「康國人並善賈，男年五歲則令學書，少解則遣學賈，以得利多為善。其人好音聲。以六月一日為歲首，至此日，王及人庶並服新衣，翦髮鬚。在國城東林下七日馬射，至欲罷日，置一金錢於帖上，射中者則得一日為王。俗事天神，崇敬甚重。云神兒七月死，失骸骨，事神之人每至其月，俱著黑疊衣，徒跣撫胸號哭，涕淚交流。丈夫婦女三五百人散在草野，求天兒骸骨，七日便止。國城外別有二百餘戶，專知喪事，別築一院，院內養狗。每有人死，即往取屍，置此院內，令狗食之，肉盡收骸骨，埋殯無棺槨。」

大唐貞觀二十一年，其國獻黃桃，大如鵝卵，其色如金，亦呼為金桃。杜環經行記云：「康國在米國西南三百餘里，一名薩末建。土沃，人富，國小。有神祠名拔，諸國事者，本出於此。」

### 曹國

曹國，隋時都那密水南數里，舊是康居之地。國無主，康國王令子烏建領之。勝兵千餘人。國中有得悉神，自西海以東諸國並敬事之。其神有金人，金破羅闊丈五尺，高下相稱。每月以駝五頭、馬十疋、羊百口祭之，常有千人食之不盡。東南去康國百里。西去何國百五十里，東去瓜州六千六百里。大業中，遣使來貢。

### 何國

何國，隋時亦都那密水南數里，亦舊康居地也。其王姓昭武，亦康國之族類。國城樓北壁畫華夏天子，西壁則畫波斯、拂菻力甚反諸國王，東壁則畫突厥、婆羅門諸國王。勝兵千人。其王坐金羊座。風俗與康國同。東去曹國百五十里，西去小安國三百里，東去瓜州六千七百五十里。大業中及大唐武德、貞觀中，皆遣使來貢。

### 史國

史國，隋時都獨莫水南十里，亦舊康居之地也。其王姓昭武，亦康國王之枝庶也。勝兵千餘人。俗同康國。北去康國二百四十里，南去吐火羅五百里，西去那色波國二百里，東北去米國二百里，東去瓜州六千里。大業中，始通中國。後漸強盛，乃創建乞史城，為數十里，郭邑二萬家。大唐貞觀中，遣使來貢。自曹國、何國、史國，皆在漢之康居故地，遂便附之。

### 奄蔡

奄蔡，漢時通焉。西與大秦接，東南二千里與康居接，去陽關八千餘里。控弦十餘萬。與康居同俗，而屬康居。土氣溫和，臨大澤，無涯岸。多楨松、白草及貂。畜牧逐水草，蓋近北海。至後漢改名阿蘭聊國。後魏時曰粟特國，一名溫那沙。後魏史云：「初，匈奴殺其王而有其國，至文成帝初，遣使朝貢，其王忽倪已三代矣。」周武帝時，亦遣使來貢。

### 嚈噠挹怛同

嚈噠國，或云高車之別種，或云大月氏之種類。其源出於塞北。自金山而南，在于闐之西，東去長安一萬一百里。至後魏文帝時，已八九十年矣。衣服類胡，加以纓絡，頭皆翦髮。其語與蠕蠕、高車及諸胡不同。部眾可十萬。依隨水草。其國無車，有輿，多駝、馬。用刑嚴急，盜無多少皆腰斬，盜一責十。死者，富家累石為藏，貧者掘地而埋，隨身諸物，皆置塜內。又兄弟共娶一妻，無兄弟者，妻戴一角帽；若有兄弟者，依其多少之數更加帽角焉。西域康居、于闐、沙勒、安息及諸小國三十餘所，皆役屬之，號為大國。每遣使朝貢。孝明帝熙平中，遣伏子統宋雲使西域，所經諸國，不能知其本末及山川里數，今舉其略云。

挹怛同。至隋時又謂挹怛國焉。挹怛國，都烏滸水南二百餘里，大月氏之種類也。勝兵五六千人。俗善戰。先時國亂，突厥遣通設字詰強領其國。俗同吐火羅。南去漕國千五百里，東去瓜州六千五百里。大業中，遣使來貢。按劉璠梁典，滑國姓嚈噠，後裔以姓為國號，轉訛又謂之挹怛焉。其本源或云車師之種，或云高車之種，或云大月氏之種。又韋節西蕃記云：「親問其國人，並自稱挹闐。」又按漢書，陳湯征郅支，康居副王挹闐抄其後重，此或康居之種類。然傳自遠國，夷語訛舛，年代綿邈，莫知根實，不可得而辨也。今考其風俗物產及諸家所說而編之。

### 吐火羅

吐火羅，一名土壑宜，後魏時吐呼羅國也，隋時通焉。都蔥嶺西五百里，在烏滸河南，即媯水也。與挹怛雜居。勝兵十萬人，皆習戰。俗奉佛。多男，少婦人，故兄弟通室。婦人五夫，則首飾載五角，十夫載十角。男子無兄弟者，則與他人結為昆季，方始得妻，不然終身無婦矣。生子屬其長兄。被服、文字與于闐略同。城北有頗黎山，南崖穴中有神馬，國人每牧馬於其側，時產名駒，皆汗血焉。其北界則漢時大宛之地，南去漕國千七百里，東去瓜州六千七百里。大業中，遣使來貢。

大唐初，屬西突厥。高宗永徽初，遣使獻大鳥，高七尺，其色玄，足如駝，鼓翅而行，日三百里，能噉鐵，夷俗謂為駝鳥。龍朔元年，吐火羅置州縣，使王名遠進西域圖記，并請于闐以西、波斯以東十六國分置都督府及州八十、縣一百、軍府百二十六，仍於吐火羅國立碑，以紀聖德。帝從之。

### 大食

大食，大唐永徽中，遣使朝貢云：其國在波斯之西。或云：初有波斯胡人，若有神助，得刀殺人。因招附諸胡，有胡人十一來，據次第摩首受化為王。此後眾漸歸附，遂滅波斯，又破拂菻及婆羅門城，所當無敵。兵眾有四十二萬。有國以來三十四年矣。初王已死，次傳第一摩首者，今王即是第三，其王姓大食。其國男夫鼻大而長，瘦黑多鬚鬢，似婆羅門，女人端麗。亦有文字，與波斯不同。出駝、馬、驢、騾、羖羊等。土多砂石，不堪耕種，無五穀，惟食駝、馬等肉，破波斯、拂菻，始有米麵。敬事天神。又云：其王常遣人乘船，將衣糧入海，經涉八年，未極西岸。於海中見一方石，石上有樹，枝赤葉青，樹上總生小兒，長六七寸，見人不語而皆能笑，動其手腳，頭著樹枝，人摘取，入手即乾黑。其使得一枝還，今在大食王處。

Source Colophon

The Classical Chinese source body was extracted from the local Tongdian source dossier and copied for this translation pass at Tulku/Tools/scythian/sources/expansion_bench_2026-05-11/tongdian_kangju_yancai_hephthalites_chinese_source_manual86.txt.

The local source dossier identifies the route as selected passages from Du You's Tongdian, volume 193, inspected from local Wikisource raw and Chinese Text Project control captures.

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