selected from Han Ji 10-14

Zizhi Tongjian retells the Han opening of the Western Regions as chronicle and judgment: Zhang Qian's mission, Wusun diplomacy, the Hunye surrender, Dawan, Kangju's watchfulness, Western Regions administration, and the Luntai withdrawal edict.

The selected passages are translated as a chronicle witness to the same Central Eurasian field known from Shiji and Han Shu, with Sima Guang's policy judgment preserved at the end.

The English is a Good Works Translation from the Classical Chinese passages printed below.

Translation

Zhang Qian Reaches the Yuezhi and Kangju

At first, Xiongnu men who had surrendered said: "The Yuezhi formerly lived between Dunhuang and Qilian. They were a strong state. Maodun of the Xiongnu attacked and broke them. Laoshang Chanyu killed the king of the Yuezhi and made his head into a drinking vessel. The remaining people fled far away. They resent the Xiongnu, but have no one with whom to strike them."

The emperor recruited anyone able to communicate with the Yuezhi as an envoy. Zhang Qian of Hanzhong, being a gentleman of the palace, answered the recruitment. He went out through Longxi and passed through the middle of the Xiongnu. The chanyu got hold of him and detained him for more than ten years.

Qian found a chance and escaped. He went west toward the Yuezhi. After several tens of days he reached Dawan. Dawan had heard of Han's wealth and wished to communicate with it but had been unable. Seeing Qian, they were pleased. They provided guides and interpreters to bring him to Kangju, and passed him on to the Great Yuezhi.

The crown prince of the Great Yuezhi had become king. Having already attacked Daxia, they divided its land and lived there. The land was fertile and rich, with few raiders; they had utterly no mind to repay the Hu. Qian stayed more than a year, but in the end could not get the essential agreement of the Yuezhi, and so returned.

Keeping along the Southern Mountains, he wished to return through the Qiang. Again he was seized by the Xiongnu and detained more than a year. It happened that Yizhixie drove out the chanyu and the Xiongnu state fell into internal disorder. Qian then escaped and returned with Ganfu, a slave of the Tangyi clan. The emperor appointed Qian Grand Master of Palace Leisure, and Ganfu Lord Who Received the Envoy. When Qian first set out there were more than one hundred men. After thirteen years away, only two returned.

Zhang Qian Reports on Dawan, Wusun, Kangju, Yancai, and the Yuezhi

When Zhang Qian first returned from the Yuezhi, he reported fully to the Son of Heaven on the customs of the Western Regions states:

"Dawan lies due west of Han, perhaps ten thousand li. Its custom is to settle on the soil and plow fields. It has many fine horses, and the horses sweat blood. It has walled cities and houses, like China. To its northeast is Wusun; to its east is Khotan. West of Khotan, all waters flow west into the Western Sea; east of it, the waters flow east into the Salt Marsh. The Salt Marsh moves hidden underground, and south of it the source of the Yellow River comes out. The Salt Marsh is perhaps five thousand li from Chang'an.

"The right side of the Xiongnu dwells east of the Salt Marsh, reaching to the Longxi Great Wall, and in the south touching the Qiang; it cuts off the Han road. Wusun, Kangju, Yancai, and the Great Yuezhi are all mobile states, following their livestock and herds, with the same customs as the Xiongnu. Daxia lies southwest of Dawan and has the same customs as Dawan.

"When I was in Daxia, I saw bamboo staves from Qiong and cloth from Shu. I asked, 'How did you get these?' The people of Daxia said, 'Our merchants go and buy them in Shendu.' Shendu lies perhaps several thousand li southeast of Daxia; its customs are settled on the soil and the same as Daxia. In my judgment, Daxia is twelve thousand li from Han and lies southwest of Han. Now Shendu again lies several thousand li southeast of Daxia, and has goods from Shu; therefore it is not far from Shu. If now envoys are sent to Daxia through the Qiang, the way is dangerous, and the Qiang hate it. If one goes a little north, he is seized by the Xiongnu. From Shu, the route should be direct, and there are no raiders."

When the Son of Heaven heard that Dawan, Daxia, Anxi, and their kind were all great states, had many strange goods, settled on the soil, had occupations quite like China's, had weak armies, and valued Han goods, and that north of them there were the Great Yuezhi, Kangju, and their kind, strong in arms but able to be induced with gifts and advantage to come to court, he rejoiced and thought Qian's words correct. If they could truly be obtained and attached by righteousness, then land would be broadened for ten thousand li, nine interpreters would be layered, different customs would be brought in, and awe and virtue would spread through the four seas.

He then ordered Qian, by way of Shu and Jianwei, to dispatch secret envoys such as Wang Ranyu by four routes at once: through Mang, through Ran, through Xi, and through Qiong and Bo, aiming to seek the state of Shendu. Each went one or two thousand li. In the north they were blocked by Di and Zuo; in the south they were blocked by Xi and Kunming. The Kunming and their kind had no rulers or chiefs, were good at plundering and robbing, and repeatedly killed and seized Han envoys. In the end none got through.

Thus Han, in seeking the road to Shendu, first communicated with the state of Dian. The king of Dian, Dangqiang, said to the Han envoys: "Which is greater, Han or I?" The Marquis of Yelang did the same. Because the road did not communicate, each considered himself lord of a whole province and did not know Han's breadth and greatness. When the envoys returned, they spoke strongly of Dian as a great state, sufficient to be served and attached. The Son of Heaven paid attention to it and again took up affairs with the southwestern Yi.

Huo Qubing, the Hunye Surrender, and Hexi

In autumn, the Xiongnu Hunye King surrendered. At this time the chanyu was angry because the Hunye King and the Xiutu King, dwelling in the west, had lost several tens of thousands killed or captured by Han, and he wanted to summon and execute them. The Hunye King and the Xiutu King were afraid and plotted to surrender to Han. First they sent envoys toward the border to intercept Han people and have them report to the Son of Heaven.

At this time the Grand Messenger Li Xi was leading work on fortifications by the river. He got the Hunye King's envoy and sent a dispatch at speed to report it. When the Son of Heaven heard, he feared that the king would use false surrender to attack the border, and therefore ordered the General of Swift Cavalry to lead troops to meet him.

The Xiutu King later regretted the plan. The Hunye King killed him and annexed his people. After the General of Swift Cavalry crossed the river, he and the Hunye King's people looked at one another from opposite sides. When the Hunye King's subordinate generals saw the Han army, many did not wish to surrender and quite a few fled. The General of Swift Cavalry then galloped in, was able to meet the Hunye King, beheaded eight thousand who wished to flee, and then sent the Hunye King alone by relay carriage to the imperial encampment, while he led all his people across the river. More than forty thousand surrendered, though they were said to number one hundred thousand.

When they reached Chang'an, the Son of Heaven's rewards and gifts amounted to several tens of great ten-thousands. He enfeoffed the Hunye King with ten thousand households as Marquis of Luoyin, and enfeoffed four subordinate kings, including Huduni, as ranked marquises. He also increased the fief of the General of Swift Cavalry by seventeen hundred households.

When Hunye surrendered, Han issued twenty thousand carts to meet him. The county offices had no money and borrowed horses from the people. Some people hid their horses, and the horses were not complete. The emperor was angry and wanted to behead the magistrate of Chang'an. The Right Interior Minister Ji An said: "The magistrate of Chang'an has no crime. Behead me alone, Ji An, and only then will the people be willing to bring out horses. Moreover, the Xiongnu have betrayed their lord and surrendered to Han. Han could slowly pass them on from county to county. Why must you make all under heaven disturbed and wear out China in order to serve men of the Yi and Di?"

The emperor was silent. When Hunye arrived, more than five hundred merchants who traded with them were implicated in capital crimes. Ji An asked to see the emperor privately at Gaomen and said: "The Xiongnu attacked the passes on the road, cut off the peace marriage, and China raised troops to punish them. The dead and wounded cannot be counted, and the expense reached hundreds of great ten-thousands. In my foolishness I thought that when Your Majesty obtained Hu people, all should be made slaves and given to the households of those who died in military service; what had been captured could be given to them, to answer the suffering of all under heaven and fill the minds of the people.

"Now, even if this cannot be done, Hunye has led several tens of thousands of people to surrender. The treasuries and storehouses are emptied for rewards and gifts, and good subjects are mobilized to serve and feed them, as though supporting arrogant sons. How would foolish commoners know that buying and selling goods in Chang'an could be netted by legal clerks as illicitly sending wealth out through the frontier passes? Your Majesty cannot obtain the resources of the Xiongnu to answer all under heaven; and then, by minute legal wording, you kill more than five hundred who did not understand. This is what is called sheltering the leaves while injuring the branches. I privately think Your Majesty should not choose it."

The emperor was silent and did not permit it. He said: "I have long not heard Ji An's words, and now he again speaks wildly."

After a short while, the surrendered people were divided and moved beyond the old frontier in the five border commanderies, all in the land south of the river. Following their old customs, they were made into five Dependent States. From Jincheng west of the river, westward along the Southern Mountains to the Salt Marsh, there were no Xiongnu. Xiongnu scouts still arrived at times, but rarely.

The Xiutu King's crown prince Midi, with his mother the yanzhi and his younger brother Lun, were confiscated into government service and sent to the Yellow Gate to raise horses. After a long time, the emperor was feasting and saw the horses, with the rear-palace women filling his side. Midi and several tens of others led horses past below the palace hall. None failed to steal glances, but when they came to Midi alone, he did not dare. Midi was eight chi and two cun tall, with a very grave appearance, and the horse was fat and fine. The emperor found him strange and asked about him. He answered fully with his real circumstances. The emperor considered his answer remarkable. That same day he granted him bathing privileges, robes, and cap, appointed him horse supervisor, and later promoted him to palace attendant, commandant of attached horses, and grand master of splendid happiness.

Once Midi was close to the emperor, he never had a fault. The emperor greatly trusted and loved him. Rewards and gifts accumulated to a thousand jin of gold. When the emperor went out, Midi rode in the escort; when he entered, Midi waited on his left and right. Many noble relatives secretly resented it and said: "Your Majesty casually obtained a Hu boy and instead honors and values him." When the emperor heard, he treated him even more generously. Because the Xiutu had made a gold man to serve as lord of sacrifice to Heaven, the surname Jin was granted to Midi.

Wusun Marriage Alliance and Western Envoys

The Wusun envoys saw Han's breadth and greatness and returned to report it to their state. Their state then valued Han more. When the Xiongnu heard that Wusun was communicating with Han, they were angry and wanted to attack it. Also, Dawan, the Yuezhi, and others beside Wusun were all serving Han. Wusun therefore became afraid and sent envoys saying it wished to receive a Han princess in marriage and become brothers. The Son of Heaven discussed it with the ministers and permitted it.

Wusun sent one thousand horses to betroth a Han woman. Han made Xijun, daughter of Jian, king of Jiangdu, a princess, and sent her to be wife to Wusun, with very lavish gifts. Kunmo, king of Wusun, made her his right wife. The Xiongnu also sent a daughter as wife to Kunmo, and he made her his left wife.

The princess built her own palace and lived there. Once or twice each year, at the seasons, she met Kunmo, set out wine and food, and ate and drank. Kunmo was old, and their speech did not communicate. The princess was sorrowful and longed to return. When the Son of Heaven heard, he pitied her, and every other year sent envoys to provide her with curtains, tents, brocade, and embroidery.

Kunmo said: "I am old." He wished to have his grandson Cencou marry the princess. The princess would not listen and wrote up the circumstances. The Son of Heaven replied: "Follow the customs of that state. We wish, together with Wusun, to destroy the Hu." Cencou then took the princess as wife. When Kunmo died, Cencou took his place and became Kunmi.

At this time, Han envoys crossed west beyond the Congling Mountains and reached Anxi. Anxi sent envoys, offering great bird eggs and skilled jugglers from Lixuan to Han. The small states of Huanqian, Dayi, Chegushi, Yumi, and Suxie all followed Han envoys to offer and appear before the Son of Heaven. The Son of Heaven was greatly pleased.

Envoys from western states came and went in succession. Whenever the Son of Heaven made inspection tours to the sea, he brought all foreign guests along. In great cities and populous places he passed through them, scattered wealth and silk as rewards and gifts, and provided generously for them, in order to display Han's abundance. He held great wrestling spectacles, brought out strange entertainments and all kinds of marvels, and gathered many spectators. Rewards and gifts were issued, with pools of wine and forests of meat. He made foreign guests see throughout the famous granaries, treasuries, and storehouses, so that seeing Han's breadth and greatness, they were overwhelmed and astonished.

Around Dawan there were many grapes, which could be made into wine, and much alfalfa, which the heavenly horses loved. Han envoys gathered their seeds and brought them back. The Son of Heaven planted them beside detached palaces and separate viewing halls, as far as the eye could see. Yet because the Western Regions were near the Xiongnu, they always feared Xiongnu envoys and treated them better than Han envoys.

The Dawan Campaign and Kangju Watch

After Han had lost the troops of Zhuoye, the ministers who debated all wished to abandon the Dawan army and devote strength to attacking the Hu. But the Son of Heaven had already sent out troops to punish Dawan. If Dawan, a small state, could not be subdued, then Daxia and its kind would gradually make light of Han; the fine horses of Dawan would never come; Wusun and Luntai would easily distress Han envoys; and Han would become a laughingstock among foreign states. He therefore investigated and punished Deng Guang and others who had said that attacking Dawan was especially unsuitable.

He pardoned convicts, mobilized bad youths and border cavalry, and after more than a year sixty thousand men went out from Dunhuang, not counting those who carried private supplies and followed. There were one hundred thousand oxen, thirty thousand horses, and donkeys and camels numbered by the ten-thousands. Provisions, weapons, crossbows, and equipment were very fully prepared. All under heaven was disturbed. More than fifty colonels were turned one after another to serving the attack on Dawan.

Dawan city had no wells and drew running water outside the walls. Therefore water engineers were sent to shift the water beneath the city and to empty it by digging through the city's source. Han further mobilized one hundred eighty thousand garrison-armored soldiers north of Jiuquan and Zhangye, established garrison troops at Juyan and Xiutu to guard Jiuquan, and levied seven categories for military service: officials under conviction, fugitives, matrilocal sons-in-law, merchants, former members of market registers, and those whose parents or grandparents had been market-register people. Dried provisions were loaded to supply the Ershi General, and transport carts and people followed in an unbroken chain. Two men skilled with horses were appointed colonels for seizing and driving horses, prepared to choose and take the good horses after Dawan was broken.

Then the Ershi General set out again. The troops were many. The small states through which he passed all met them and brought out food to supply the army. When he reached Luntai, Luntai would not submit. He attacked for several days and slaughtered it. From there westward he proceeded level to Dawan city. Of the troops, thirty thousand arrived. Dawan's soldiers came out to meet and attack the Han soldiers. The Han soldiers shot and defeated them, and Dawan's soldiers fled inside and defended their city.

Ershi wished to attack Yucheng City, but feared that if he stayed on the march Dawan would create further deceit. He therefore first reached Dawan, cut off and shifted the source of its water, and Dawan, already troubled and distressed, was besieged. He attacked the city for more than forty days.

The nobles of Dawan plotted: "King Wugua hid the fine horses and killed Han envoys. If we now kill the king and bring out the fine horses, the Han soldiers ought to withdraw. If they do not withdraw, then it will not be too late to fight with all our strength and die." The nobles of Dawan all thought this right and together killed the king.

The outer city was broken, and Jianmi, a brave noble general of Dawan, was captured. Dawan was greatly afraid and fled into the inner city. Holding the head of King Wugua, they sent a man to Ershi with an agreement: "If Han does not attack us, we will bring out all our fine horses and let you choose whatever you wish, and will provide food for the Han army. If you do not listen to us, we will kill all the fine horses. Kangju's rescue is also about to arrive. When it arrives, we will be inside, Kangju will be outside, and we will fight the Han army. Consider carefully which course to follow."

At this time, Kangju was watching and saw that the Han troops were still strong; it did not dare advance. Ershi heard that inside Dawan city there were newly captured Han men who knew how to dig wells, and that food inside was still abundant. He reckoned: "We came to punish the chief offender Wugua. Wugua's head has already arrived. If, with matters like this, we do not permit the agreement, they will hold firm; and Kangju, waiting until the Han soldiers are exhausted, will come to rescue Dawan. Then the Han army will surely be broken." He therefore permitted Dawan's agreement.

Dawan then brought out its horses and had Han choose them for itself, and brought out much food to feed the Han army. The Han army took several tens of its fine horses, and more than three thousand mares and stallions of middling quality and below. They established Meicai, a Dawan noble who in former times had treated Han well, as king of Dawan, made covenant with him, and withdrew the troops.

At first, when Ershi set out west from Dunhuang, he divided into several armies, following the southern and northern roads. Colonel Wang Shensheng led more than one thousand men separately to Yucheng. The king of Yucheng attacked and destroyed him; a few men escaped and fled to Ershi. Ershi ordered Shangguan Jie, Commandant for Searching Grain, to go attack Yucheng. The king of Yucheng fled to Kangju. Jie pursued him to Kangju. When Kangju heard that Han had already broken Dawan, it brought out the king of Yucheng and gave him to Jie. Jie ordered four cavalrymen to bind and guard him and bring him to Ershi. Zhao Di, a cavalryman from Shanggui, fearing the king of Yucheng might escape, drew his sword, struck him, beheaded him, and caught up with Ershi.

After Dawan, Western Regions Tremble

In spring, the Ershi General came to the capital. The small states through which Ershi passed, hearing that Dawan had been broken, all sent their sons and younger brothers to follow him in with tribute and offerings, to appear before the Son of Heaven and thereby become hostages.

When the army returned, it brought in more than one thousand horses. On the later march, the army was not short of food, and not many had died in battle, but generals and officials were greedy, did not care for the soldiers, and exploited them; for this reason many died. Because the Son of Heaven had attacked at ten thousand li, he did not record their faults. He instead issued an edict enfeoffing Li Guangli as Marquis of Haixi, enfeoffed Zhao Di as Marquis of Xinzhi, made Shangguan Jie Superintendent of Lesser Treasury, and appointed three army officers as ministers of the nine courts, more than one hundred as chancellor of marquisates, commandery governors, and officials of two-thousand-stone rank, and more than one thousand below thousand-stone rank. Those who had pushed forward received offices beyond their hopes; those who had gone under punishment all had their toil taken into account. The soldiers were each granted forty thousand cash in value.

When the Xiongnu heard that Ershi was campaigning against Dawan, they wanted to intercept him. But Ershi's troops were strong, and they did not dare stand against him. They then sent cavalry by way of Loulan to watch for Han envoys passing later and cut off communication. At that time Han had Zheng Renwen leading troops stationed at the Jade Gate Pass. He captured living prisoners, learned the situation, and reported it. The emperor issued an edict ordering Renwen to lead troops by the route and capture the king of Loulan, bring him to the palace gate, and accuse him in writing.

The king replied: "A small state between great states has no way to make itself secure unless it belongs to both. I wish to move the state and enter to live in Han land." The emperor found his words honest, sent him back to his state, and also used him to watch and scout the Xiongnu. From this time the Xiongnu no longer deeply trusted Loulan.

After Dawan was broken, the Western Regions were shaken and afraid, and Han envoys entering the Western Regions increasingly obtained their offices. Therefore from Dunhuang west to the Salt Marsh, relay stations were set up here and there; and at Luntai and Quli there were several hundred agricultural soldiers. Envoys and colonels were established to lead and guard them, in order to supply those sent to foreign states.

More than a year later, the nobles of Dawan thought Meicai was good at flattery and had caused their state to meet slaughter. They therefore killed Meicai together, established Wugua's younger brother Chanfeng as king of Dawan, and sent his son to attend Han. Han then sent envoys with gifts and rewards to settle and pacify him. Chanfeng made covenant with Han to offer two heavenly horses each year.

Luntai Edict and Withdrawal

On the day dingsi, Tian Qianqiu, Grand Herald, was made chancellor and enfeoffed as Marquis for Enriching the People. Qianqiu had no other talent or ability, and had no record of campaign service or merit. Only because of one word that awakened the emperor's intention, he took the chancellorship in several months and was enfeoffed as marquis; the world had never had such a thing. Yet as a man he was generous, solid, and wise, and in office he was equal to his title, surpassing several men before and after him.

Before this, Sang Hongyang, Commandant for Searching Grain, together with the chancellor and the censorial officials, memorialized: "East of Luntai there are more than five thousand qing of irrigable fields. Agricultural garrison soldiers can be sent, and three colonels established to divide and guard them, increasing the planting of the five grains. Zhangye and Jiuquan can send cavalry and acting commanders as scouts. Strong and brave people willing to migrate can be recruited to go to the fields, increasing cultivation of irrigated land. Relay stations can gradually be built in rows, joining city to city westward, to overawe the western states and support Wusun."

The emperor then issued an edict, deeply setting forth his regret for what had already passed:

"Formerly the responsible officials memorialized, wishing to increase the people's taxes by thirty parts to assist frontier use. This would further distress the old, weak, orphaned, and alone. Now again they request sending soldiers to farm Luntai. Luntai is more than one thousand li west of Cheshi. Formerly, when the Marquis of Kailing attacked Cheshi, although he won and made its king surrender, because the land was distant and food was lacking, several thousand men still died on the road. How much more if we go still farther west?

"Previously, because of my lack of clarity, when Military Scout Hong submitted a writing saying, 'The Xiongnu bound the front and back feet of horses and placed them below the city, galloping and saying, Qin men, I beg you for horses,' and also because Han envoys had long been detained and had not returned, I raised and sent the Ershi General, wishing thereby to make the envoys' authority weighty.

"In antiquity, ministers and great officers shared in counsel, and it was checked with milfoil and turtle-shell; if it was not auspicious, they did not proceed. Recently I had the writing about the bound horses shown everywhere to the chancellor, censorial officials, two-thousand-stone officials, grand masters, gentlemen, men of letters, and even commandery and dependent-state commandants. All thought, 'The captives themselves have bound their horses. How very inauspicious!' Some thought, 'They wish thereby to show strength; one who lacks enough shows others that he has excess.' The court esoteric masters, the grand astrologer, those who manage stars and observe vapors, and the grand diviners with turtle-shell and milfoil all thought, 'Auspicious. The Xiongnu will surely be broken. This moment cannot be obtained again.' They also said, 'If the northward campaign goes out, at Fushan it will surely conquer. According to the hexagram, among the generals Ershi is the most auspicious.' Therefore I personally dispatched Ershi below Fushan and ordered him absolutely not to go deeply in.

"Now plans, plots, hexagrams, and omens have all turned out contrary and false. The Marquis of Zhonghe obtained Xiongnu scouts, who then said, 'The binding of horses was a Xiongnu curse against the army.' The Xiongnu often say, 'Han is extremely large, yet cannot endure hunger and thirst. If it loses one wolf, it runs one thousand sheep.' Recently Ershi was defeated; soldiers died, were seized, and were scattered. Grief and pain are constantly in my heart.

"Now they again request distant farming at Luntai and wish to raise relay towers. This disturbs and labors all under heaven. It is not the way to give ease to the people. I cannot bear to hear it. The Grand Herald and others again discussed recruiting prisoners to escort Xiongnu envoys, making clear the reward of marquisate in order to repay anger. This is what the Five Hegemons would not have done. Moreover, when the Xiongnu get Han men who surrender, they always support and search them, asking what they have heard. How could our plan be carried out?

"At present, the task lies in prohibiting harshness and violence, stopping unauthorized taxation, strengthening basic agriculture, and restoring the horse-replacement order, in order to make up shortages and not let military preparations be lacking. Let the two-thousand-stone officials of commanderies and kingdoms each submit plans for advancing livestock and horses and for replenishing the frontier, and answer with the accounts."

From this time, armies were no longer sent out. Tian Qianqiu was enfeoffed as Marquis for Enriching the People to make clear rest and respite, and the intention to enrich and nourish the people. Zhao Guo was also made Commandant for Searching Grain. Guo was able to make alternate fields. His plowing and weeding field tools were all convenient and clever. He used them to teach the people. They used little effort and obtained much grain, and the people all found it convenient.

The minister Guang says:

All under heaven truly has never been without men of service. Emperor Wu loved achievements among the Four Yi, and brave, sharp men who made light of death filled the court. Opening soil and broadening land happened just as he wished. Later, when he rested the people and valued agriculture, men like Zhao Guo taught the people plowing and weeding, and the people also received the benefit. In the body of one ruler, the directions of interest and liking were different, and men of service always answered them. If Emperor Wu had joined to himself the measure of the Three Kings and raised the governance of Shang and Zhou, would he have lacked ministers of the Three Dynasties?

Colophon

This Good Works Translation was made from selected Classical Chinese passages from Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian, Han Ji 10-14.

The English translation is independently derived from the Classical Chinese source body.

Compiled for the New Tianmu Anglican Church, 2026.

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Source Text: Classical Chinese

### Zhang Qian Reaches the Yuezhi and Kangju

初，匈奴降者言：「月氏故居敦煌、祁連間，為強國，匈奴冒頓攻破之。老上單于殺月氏王，以其頭為飲器。餘眾遁逃遠去，怨匈奴，無與共擊之。」上募能通使月氏者，漢中張騫以郎應募，出隴西，逕匈奴中；單于得之，留騫十餘歲。騫得間亡，嚮月氏西走，數十日，至大宛。大宛聞漢之饒財，欲通不得，見騫，喜，為發導譯抵康居，傳致大月氏。大月氏太子為王，既擊大夏，分其地而居之，地肥饒，少寇，殊無報胡之心。騫留歲餘，竟不能得月氏要領，乃還；並南山，欲從羌中歸，復為匈奴所得，留歲餘。會伊稚斜逐於單，匈奴國內亂，騫乃與堂邑氏奴甘父逃歸。上拜騫為太中大夫，甘父為奉使君。騫初行時百餘人，去十三歲，唯二人得還。

### Zhang Qian Reports on Dawan, Wusun, Kangju, Yancai, and the Yuezhi

初，張騫自月氏還，具為天子言西域諸國風俗：「大宛在漢正西，可萬里。其俗土著，耕田；多善馬，馬汗血；有城郭、室屋，如中國。其東北則烏孫，東則于窴。于窴之西，則水皆西流注西海，其東，水東流注鹽澤。鹽澤潛行地下，其南則河源出焉。鹽澤去長安可五千里。匈奴右方居鹽澤以東，至隴西長城，南接羌，鬲漢道焉。烏孫、康居、奄蔡、大月氏，皆行國，隨畜牧，與匈奴同俗。大夏在大宛西南，與大宛同俗。臣在大夏時，見邛竹杖、蜀布，問曰：『安得此？』大夏國人曰：『吾賈人往市之身毒。』身毒在大夏東南可數千里，其俗土著，與大夏同。以騫度之，大夏去漢萬二千里，居漢西南；今身毒國又居大夏東南數千里，有蜀物，此其去蜀不遠矣。今使大夏，從羌中，險，羌人惡之；少北，則為匈奴所得；從蜀，宜徑，又無寇。」

天子既聞大宛及大夏、安息之屬皆大國，多奇物，土著，頗與中國同業，而兵弱，貴漢財物。其北有大月氏、康居之屬，兵強，可以賂遺設利朝也。誠得而以義屬之，則廣地萬里，重九譯，致殊俗，威德遍於四海，欣然以騫言為然。乃令騫因蜀、犍為發間使王然于等四道並出：出駹，出冉，出徙，出邛、僰，指求身毒國，各行一二千里，其北方閉氐、莋，南方閉巂、昆明。昆明之屬無君長，善寇盜，輒殺略漢使，終莫得通。於是漢以求身毒道，始通滇國。滇王當羌謂漢使者曰：「漢孰與我大？」及夜郎侯亦然。以道不通，故各自以為一州主，不知漢廣大。使者還，因盛言滇大國，足事親附；天子注意焉，乃復事西南夷。

### Huo Qubing, the Hunye Surrender, and Hexi

秋，匈奴渾邪王降。是時，單于怒渾邪王、休屠王居西方為漢所殺虜數萬人，欲召誅之。渾邪王與休屠王恐，謀降漢，先遣使向邊境要遮漢人，令報天子。是時，大行李息將城河上，得渾邪王使，馳傳以聞。天子聞之，恐其以詐降而襲邊，乃令驃騎將軍將兵往迎之。休屠王後悔，渾邪王殺之，并其眾。驃騎既渡河，與渾邪王眾相望。渾邪王裨將見漢軍，而多不欲降者，頗遁去。驃騎乃馳入，得與渾邪王相見，斬其欲亡者八千人，遂獨遣渾邪王乘傳詣至行在所，盡將其眾渡河。降者四萬餘人，號稱十萬。既至長安，天子所以賞賜者數十巨萬；封渾邪王萬戶，為漯陰侯，封其裨王呼毒尼等四人皆為列侯。益封驃騎千七百戶。

渾邪之降也，漢發車二萬乘以迎之，縣官無錢，從民貰馬，民或匿馬，馬不具。上怒，欲斬長安令，右內史汲黯曰：「長安令無罪，獨斬臣黯，民乃肯出馬。且匈奴畔其主而降漢，漢徐以縣次傳之，何至令天下騷動，罷敝中國而以事夷狄之人乎！」上默然。及渾邪至，賈人與市者坐當死五百餘人，黯請間見高門，曰：「夫匈奴攻當路塞，絕和親，中國興兵誅之，死傷者不可勝計，而費以巨萬百數。臣愚以為陛下得胡人，皆以為奴婢，以賜從軍死事者家，所鹵獲，因予之，以謝天下之苦，塞百姓之心。今縱不能，渾邪率數萬之眾來降，虛府庫賞賜，發良民侍養，譬若奉驕子，愚民安知市買長安中物，而文吏繩以為闌出財物於邊關乎！陛下縱不能得匈奴之資以謝天下，又以微文殺無知者五百餘人，是所謂庇其葉而傷其枝者也。臣竊為陛下不取也。」上默然不許，曰：「吾久不聞汲黯之言，今又復妄發矣。」

居頃之，乃分徙降者邊五郡故塞外，而皆在河南，因其故俗為五屬國。而金城河西，西並南山至鹽澤，空無匈奴，匈奴時有候者到而希矣。

休屠王太子日磾與母閼氏、弟倫俱沒入官，輸黃門養馬。久之，帝游宴，見馬，後宮滿側，日磾等數十人牽馬過殿下，莫不竊視，至日磾獨不敢。日磾長八尺二寸，容貌甚嚴，馬又肥好，上異而問之，具以本狀對。對奇焉，即日賜湯沐、衣冠，拜為馬監，遷侍中、駙馬都尉、光祿大夫。日磾既親近，未嘗有過失，上甚信愛之，賞賜累千金，出則驂乘，入侍左右。貴戚多竊怨曰：「陛下妄得一胡兒，反貴重之。」上聞，愈厚焉。以休屠作金人為祭天主，故賜日磾姓金氏。

### Wusun Marriage Alliance and Western Envoys

烏孫使者見漢廣大，歸報其國，其國乃益重漢。匈奴聞烏孫與漢通，怒，欲擊之。又其旁大宛、月氏之屬皆事漢，烏孫於是恐，使使願得尚漢公主，為昆弟。天子與群臣議，許之。烏孫以千匹馬往聘漢女。漢以江都王建女細君為公主，往妻烏孫，贈送甚盛；烏孫王昆莫以為右夫人。匈奴亦遣女妻昆莫，以為左夫人。公主自治宮室居，歲時一再與昆莫會，置酒飲食。昆莫年老，言語不通，公主悲愁思歸，天子聞而憐之，間歲遣使者以帷帳錦繡給遺焉。昆莫曰：「我老。」欲使其孫岑娶尚公主。公主不聽，上書言狀。天子報曰：「從其國俗，欲與烏孫共滅胡。」岑娶遂妻公主。昆莫死，岑娶代立，為昆彌。

是時，漢使西逾蔥嶺，抵安息。安息發使，以大鳥卵及黎軒善眩人獻於漢，及諸小國驩潛、大益、車姑師、扜冞、蘇䪥之屬，皆隨漢使獻見天子，天子大悅。西國使更來更去，天子每巡狩海上，悉從外國客，大都、多人則過之，散財帛以賞賜，厚具以饒給之，以覽示漢富厚焉。大角抵，出奇戲、諸怪物，多聚觀者。行賞賜，酒池肉林，令外國客遍觀名倉庫府藏之積，見漢之廣大，傾駭之。大宛左右多蒲萄，可以為酒；多苜蓿，天馬嗜之；漢使采其實以來，天子種之於離宮別觀旁，極望。然西域以近匈奴，常畏匈奴使，待之過於漢使焉。

### The Dawan Campaign and Kangju Watch

漢既亡浞野之兵，公卿議者皆願罷宛軍，專力攻胡。天子業出兵誅宛，宛小國而不能下，則大夏之屬漸輕漢，而宛善馬絕不來，烏孫、輪台易苦漢使，為外國笑，乃案言伐宛尤不便者鄧光等。赦囚徒，發惡少年及邊騎，歲餘而出敦煌者六萬人，負私從者不與，牛十萬，馬三萬匹，驢、橐駝以萬數，繼糧、兵弩甚設。天下騷動，轉相奉伐宛五十餘校尉。宛城中無井，汲城外流水，於是遣水工徙其城下水，空以穴其城。益發戍甲卒十八萬酒泉、張掖北，置居延、休屠屯兵以衛酒泉，而發天下吏有罪者、亡命者及贅婿、賈人、故有市籍、父母大父母有市籍者凡七科，適為兵；及載糒給貳師，轉車人徒相連屬；而拜習馬者二人為執、驅馬校尉，備破宛擇取其善馬云。

於是貳師後復行，兵多，所至小國莫不迎，出食給軍。至輪台，輪台不下。攻數日，屠之。自此而西，平行至宛城，兵到者三萬。宛兵迎擊漢兵，漢兵射敗之，宛兵走入，保其城。貳師欲攻郁成城，恐留行而令宛益生詐，乃先至宛，決其水原移之，則宛固已憂困，圍其城，攻之四十餘日。宛貴人謀曰：「王毋寡匿善馬，殺漢使，今殺王而出善馬，漢兵宜解；即不解，乃力戰而死，未晚也。」宛貴人皆以為然，共殺王。其外城壞，虜宛貴人勇將煎靡。宛大恐，走入城中，持王毋寡頭，遣人使貳師，約曰：「漢無攻我，我盡出善馬恣所取，而給漢軍食。即不聽我，我盡殺善馬，康居之救又且至，至，我居內，康居居外，與漢軍戰。孰計之，何從？」是時，康居候視漢兵尚盛，不敢進。貳師聞宛城中新得漢人，知穿井，而其內食尚多，計以為「來誅首惡者毋寡，毋寡頭已至，如此不許則堅守，而康居候漢兵罷來救宛，破漢兵必矣」，乃許宛之約。宛乃出其馬，令漢自擇之，而多出食食漢軍。漢軍取其善馬數十匹，中馬以下牝牡三千餘匹，而立宛貴人之故時遇漢善者名昧蔡為宛王，與盟而罷兵。

初，貳師起敦煌西，分為數軍，從南、北道。校尉王申生將千餘人別至郁成，郁成王擊滅之，數人脫亡，走貳師。貳師令搜粟都尉上官桀往攻郁成，郁成王亡走康居，桀追至康居。康居聞漢已破宛，出郁成王與桀，桀令四騎士縛守詣貳師。上邽騎士趙弟恐失郁成王，拔劍擊斬其首，追及貳師。

### After Dawan, Western Regions Tremble

春，貳師將軍來至京師。貳師所過小國聞宛破，皆使其子弟從入貢獻，見天子，因為質焉。軍還，入馬千餘匹。後行，軍非乏食，戰死不甚多，而將吏貪，不愛卒，侵牟之，以此物故者眾。天子為萬里而伐，不錄其過，乃下詔封李廣利為海西侯，封趙弟為新畤侯，以上官桀為少府，軍官吏為九卿者三人，諸侯相、郡守、二千石百餘人，千石以下千餘人，奮行者官過其望，以謫過行，皆黜其勞，士卒賜直四萬錢。

匈奴聞貳師征大宛，欲遮之，貳師兵盛，不敢當，即遣騎因樓蘭候漢使後過者，欲絕勿通。時漢軍正任文將兵屯玉門關，捕得生口，知狀以聞。上詔文便道引兵捕樓蘭王，將詣闕簿責。王對曰：「小國在大國間，不兩屬無以自安，願徙國入居漢地。」上直其言，遣歸國，亦因使候司匈奴，匈奴自是不甚親信樓蘭。

自大宛破後，西域震懼，漢使入西域者益得職。於是自敦煌西至鹽澤往往起亭，而輪台、渠犁皆有田卒數百人，置使者、校尉領護，以給使外國者。

後歲餘，宛貴人以為昧蔡善諛，使我國遇屠，乃相與殺昧蔡，立毋寡昆弟蟬封為宛王，而遣其子入侍於漢。漢因使使賂賜，以鎮撫之。蟬封與漢約，歲獻天馬二匹。

### Luntai Edict and Withdrawal

丁巳，以大鴻臚田千秋為丞相，封富民侯。千秋無它材能，又無伐閱功勞，特以一言寤意，數月取宰相，封侯，世未嘗有也。然為人敦厚有智，居位自稱，逾於前後數公。

先是搜粟都尉桑弘羊與丞相、御史奏言：「輪台東有溉田五千頃以上，可遣屯田卒，置校尉三人分護，益種五穀；張掖、酒泉遣騎假司馬為斥候；募民壯健敢徙者詣田所，益墾溉田，稍築列亭，連城而西，以威西國，輔烏孫。」上乃下詔，深陳既往之悔曰：「前有司奏欲益民賦三十，助邊用，是重困老弱孤獨也。而今又請遣卒田輪台。輪台西於車師千餘里，前開陵侯擊車師時，雖勝，降其王，以遼遠乏食，道死者尚數千人，況益西乎！曩者朕之不明，以軍候弘上書，言『匈奴縛馬前後足置城下，馳言「秦人，我匄若馬，」』又，漢使者久留不還，故興遣貳師將軍，欲以為使者威重也。古者卿、大夫與謀，參以蓍、龜，不吉不行。乃者以縛馬書遍視丞相、御史、二千石、諸大夫、郎、為文學者，乃至郡、屬國都尉等，皆以『虜自縛其馬，不祥甚哉！』或以為『欲以見強，夫不足者視人有餘。』公車方士、太史、治星、望氣及太卜龜蓍皆以為『吉，匈奴必破，時不可再得也。』又曰：『北伐行將，於鬴山必克。卦，諸將貳師最吉。』故朕親發貳師下鬴山，詔之必毋深入。今計謀、卦兆皆反繆。重合侯得虜候者，乃言『縛馬者匈奴詛軍事也。』匈奴常言『漢極大，然不耐飢渴，失一狼，走千羊。』乃者貳師敗，軍士死略離散，悲痛常在朕心。今又請遠田輪台，欲起亭隧，是擾勞天下，非所以優民也，朕不忍聞！大鴻臚等又議欲募囚徒送匈奴使者，明封侯之賞以報忿，此五伯所弗為也。且匈奴得漢降者常提掖搜索，問以所聞，豈得行其計乎！當今務在禁苛暴，止擅賦，力本農，修馬復令，以補缺、毋乏武備而已。郡國二千石各上進畜馬方略補邊狀，與計對。」

由是不復出軍，而封田千秋為富民侯，以明休息，思富養民也。又以趙過為搜粟都尉。過能為代田，其耕耘田器皆有便巧，以教民，用力少而得穀多，民皆便之。

臣光曰：天下信未嘗無士也！武帝好四夷之功，而勇銳輕死之士充滿朝廷，闢土廣地，無不如意。及後息民重農，而趙過之儔教民耕耘，民亦被其利。此一君之身趣好殊別，而士輒應之，誠使武帝兼三王之量以興商、周之治，其無三代之臣乎！

Source Colophon

The Classical Chinese source body was extracted from the local Zizhi Tongjian source dossier and copied for this translation pass at Tulku/Tools/scythian/sources/expansion_bench_2026-05-11/zizhi_tongjian_han_frontier_chinese_source_manual89.txt.

The local source dossier identifies the source as selected passages from Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian, Han Ji 10-14, corresponding to volumes 18-22, with local raw and cleaned captures preserved for verification.

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